Abstract: Asian elephants, Elephus maximus, have the greatest volume of cerebral cortex available for cognitive processing of all
                       extant terrestrial animal species. A manifestation of cognitive behaviour is tool use and tool manufacture. Fly switching with branches is
                       a type of tool use previously shown in captive Asian elephants to be effective in repelling flies and to vary in frequency with the intensity
                       of flies. In the first part of the present study we report on observations of one juvenile and 33 adult wild elephants comprising 26.7 h of
                       cumulative observations in Nagarhole National Park, Karnataka, India. Eight of these elephants were observed using branches
                       presumably to repel flies. In the second part of the study, conducted also in Nagarhole Park, we presented to 13 captive elephants,
                       maintained under a naturalistic system, branches that were too long or bushy to be effectively used as switches. The long branches
                       were presented in two trials to each elephant and they were given 5 min to either attempt switching with the long branch, or modify the
                       branch and switch with the altered branch. Eight of these elephants modified the branch on at least one trial to a smaller branch and
                       switched with the altered branch. There were different styles of modification of the branches, the most common of which was holding
                       the main stem with the front foot and pulling off a side branch or distal end with the trunk. We propose that fly switching with branches
                       is a common form of tool use in wild Asian elephants when fly intensity is high. Our documentation of the manufacture of a tool by
                       elephants, together with the fact that these animals have a volume of cerebral cortex available for cognitive processing that exceeds that
                       of any primate species, would appear to place this animal in the category of great apes in terms of cognitive abilities for tool use and
                       tool manufacture.

                   Abstract: unassigned Studied the use of tree branches to repel biting flies by 15 adult female working Asian elephants (AEs).
                       Branches were placed within reach of the AEs, and fly switching (FS) was observed for 10 min at daybreak and at 4 times during the
                       day. Flies on or around the AEs were also counted during the 132 observations. The median switching rate (MSR) was 29 in 10 min
                       at daybreak. In late morning, when fly intensity was greatest, the MSR was 186 in 10 min. The fly count (FC) decreased by 43% in a
                       comparison of 2 observations (without and with a branch). The AEs' activities and behavior are discussed, and tables of FS vs FC are
                       given. FS satisfies 1 generally accepted definition of animal tool use.

                   Abstract: Examined the current patterns of family traditions with elephants among mahouts living within Nagarahole National Park,
                       India. 16 mahouts and 4 young assistants (aged 12-13 yrs) were interviewed, representing Hindu, Muslim, and tribal families. In all 3
                       cultures, almost all had been introduced to elephants by a father or other male relative; the mahouts' sons expected to be mahouts.
                       Mahouts' sons regularly assisted and played an essential role in the management of female elephants. No examples of injuries to
                       children were mentioned by mahouts, yet some mahouts and villagers had been killed or seriously injured by elephants. Family tradition
                       played a major role for Hindus, Muslims, and tribals in the decision to work with elephants. The semi-captivity of, and traditional,
                       structured work activities with, Asian elephants may afford some possible improvements for their welfare and human-elephant
                       conflicts.

                   Abstract: Investigated the experience and perceptions of elephant drivers with regard to approaching the rhinoceros when
                       transporting tourists, and the extent to which their preferences matched their perceptions of the tourists' desires. This study also
                       determined whether the photographic equipment, particularly the power of camera lens, influenced the expectations of tourists when
                       viewing a rhinoceros. 17 head elephant drivers from Nepal were interviewed with standardized open-ended questions with translator
                       assistance. Results showed that drivers preferred a greater distance from a rhinoceros than did tourists. Drivers described that some
                       tourists wanted to get closer than was safe to rhinoceroses and other wildlife so as to take good photographs; some even wanted to be
                       within touching distance. Drivers noted that tourists with long camera lenses did not seek or request to be as close to the rhinoceros as
                       tourists with short camera lenses.

Lynette A. Hart
The Asian elephants-driver partnership: the drivers' perspective
Applied Animal Behaviour Science 1994, 40:297-312.

Abstract:  Bioseismic studies have preivously documented the use of seismic stimuli as a method of communication in arthropods and small mammals.  Seismic signals are used to communicate intraspecifically in many capacities such as mate finding, spacing, warning, resource assessing, and in group cohesion.   Seismic signals are also used in interspecific mutualism and as a deterrent to predators.  Although bioseismics is a significant mode of communication that is well documented for relatively small vertebrates, the potetial for seismic communicaiton has been all but ignored in large mammals.  IN this paper, we describe two modes of producing seismic waves with the potential for long distance transmission: 1) locomotion by animals causing percussion on the ground and 2) acoustic, seismic-evoking sounds that couple witht eh ground.  We present recourdings of several mammals, including lions, rhinoceroses, and elephants, showing that they generate similar acoustic and seismic vibrations.  These large animals that produce high amplitude vocalizations are the most likely to produce seismic vibrations that propagate long distances.  The elephant seems to be the most liely candidate to engage in long distance seismic communication due to its size and its high amplitude, low frequenmcy, relatively monotonic vocalizations that propagate in the ground and have the potential to travel long distances.  We review particular anatomical features of the elephant that would facilitate the detection of seismic waves.  We also assess low frequency sounds in the enviornment such as thunder and th elikelihood of seismic transmission.  In addition, we rpesent the potential role of seismic stimuli in human communicaiton as well as the impact of modern anthropogenic effects on the seismic environment.

                   Abstract: Seismic and acoustic data were recorded simultaneously from Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) during periods of
                       vocalizations and locomotion. Acoustic and seismic signals from rumbles were highly correlated at near and far distances and were in
                       phase near the elephant and were out of phase at an increased distance from the elephant. Data analyses indicated that elephant
                       generated signals associated with rumbles and "foot stomps" propagated at different velocities in the two media, the acoustic signals
                       traveling at 309 m/s and the seismic signals at 248-264 m/s. Both types of signals had predominant frequencies in the range of 20 Hz.
                       Seismic signal amplitudes considerably above background noise were recorded at 40 m from the generating elephants for both the
                       rumble and the stomp. Seismic propagation models suggest that seismic waveforms from vocalizations are potentially detectable by
                       instruments at distances of up to 16 km, and up to 32 km for locomotion generated signals. Thus, if detectable by elephants, these
                       seismic signals could be useful for long distance communication.

                  Abstract: The economic impact of elephants, Loxodonta africana, and predators, particularly lions, Panthera leo, on rural agriculturists
                       in the Kwando region of the East Caprivi, Namibia was assessed from the years 1991 to 1995. Elephants were responsible for the
                       greatest number of wildlife conflicts in the region, while lions had the greatest financial impact on farmers. Attempts were made to
                       reduce conflicts between elephants and farmers using deterrents such as electrical fencing, trip-alarm techniques and elephant warning
                       calls. Success of deterrents depended on the frequency of exposure to elephants, maintenance and the ecology of both humans and
                       elephants in the region. Of the deterrent strategies explored, only electrical fencing reduced elephant damage at the community level.
                       The future efficacy of electric fencing is uncertain, however, if elephants do not associate it with fear and possible death. Deterrent
                       efforts played a role in improving relations between communities and conservationists. Scenarios for how human agricultural
                       communities might co-exist with free-ranging elephants are discussed.

Abstract:  Reuter, Nummela, and Hemila's recent letter hypothesized that elephants may sense ground vibrations by bond conduction and use of the massive ossicles of their middle ears.  Their inner ears also are specialized for low frequencies, having reverted to a reptilian-like cochlear structure that may facilitate detection of seismic signals.  Although bone conduction could be used for detection of seismic signals, mechanoreceptors with neural transmission are also a possibility.  For localization of 20-Hz signals, the pinnae are limited given the large wavelengths involved, unless higher harmonics are reliably present.