References to articles
Beaver BV. Animal behavior case of
the month. Cat with 7-week history of spraying urine and defecating in
house. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1994 Jan
1;204(1):53-4.
Bergman L, Hart BL, et al. Evaluation of
urine marking by cats as a model for understanding veterinary
diagnostic and treatment approaches and client attitudes. J Am Vet
Med Assoc. 2002 Nov 1;221(9):1282-6.
Abstract:
OBJECTIVE: To obtain information regarding diagnostic and treatment
approaches of veterinarians and attitudes and beliefs of clients about
a common clinical problem, urine marking in cats. DESIGN: Cohort study.
STUDY POPULATION: 70 veterinarians providing care for urine-marking
cats
and 500 owners of urine-marking cats. PROCEDURE: Veterinarians were
interviewed
via telephone regarding criteria for diagnosis of urine marking and
recommended
treatments. Cat owners who responded to recruitment efforts for a
clinical
trial for urine-marking cats were interviewed via telephone regarding
whether
and from what sources they sought help to resolve the marking problem.
RESULTS: Almost a third of veterinarians did not seem to correctly
distinguish between urine marking (spraying) and inappropriate
urination. Those that did make this diagnostic distinction reported
recommending environmental management and prescribing medication
significantly more often that those that did not
make this distinction. Seventy-four percent of cat owners sought help
from
their veterinarians for urine marking; other common sources of
information were the Internet and friends. Among those who did not
consult a veterinarian, the most frequently cited reason was that they
did not think their veterinarian could help. Among cat owners who
consulted their veterinarians, 8% reported receiving advice on
environmental hygiene and 4% on
environmental management (limiting intercat interactions), although
veterinarians who correctly diagnosed urine marking reported giving
such
advice 100 and 83% of the time, respectively. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL
RELEVANCE: Results may serve as a model for obtaining information
critical
to developing veterinary continuing education and public outreach
programs
for animal owners for various diseases.
Dehasse J. Feline
urine spraying. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. Vol
52(3-4), Apr 1997, pp. 365-371.
Frank DF, Erb HN, Houpt K. Urine
spraying in cats: Presence of concurrent disease and effects of a
pheromone treatment. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. Vol
61(3), Jan 1999, pp. 263-272.
Hart BL, Cooper L. Factors relating to
urine spraying and fighting in prepubertally gonadectomized cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1984 May 15;184(10):1255-8.
Abstract:
The fact that male cats are routinely castrated prior to full sexual
maturity for behavioral reasons prompted a survey of the prevalence of
these
behaviors in prepubertally gonadectomized male and female cats. About
10%
of the 134 male and 5% of the 152 female cats studied engaged in
spraying on a frequent basis later in adult life. Problem spraying and
fighting in
males was of the same order of magnitude as in males castrated in
adulthood after the problem behaviors had appeared. The age of
prepubertal castration, ranging from 6 to 10 months, had no influence
on spraying or fighting later in life. It was found that male cats are
more likely to spray and fight if they are in households with female
cats than with other male cats. With regard to female cats, spraying or
fighting was less than that of male cats. Age at the time of
gonadectomy was not a factor in their tendency to spray or fight.
Possible prenatal masculinization of female fetuses by male fetuses, as
revealed by littermate composition, was not a factor in the
predisposition of female cats to spray or fight.
Hart BL, Voith VL. Changes in urine
spraying, feeding and sleep behavior of cats following medial
preoptic-anterior hypothalamic lesions.
Brain Research. Vol 145(2), Apr 1978, pp. 406-409.
Abstract
Radiofrequency lesions were made in the medial preoptic-anterior
hypothalamic region of 6 male and 3 female pet cats, and their owners
reported their behavioral changes for 10-24 mo thereafter. The
procedure eliminated urine spraying in the males but not in the
females. All Ss had an increase in
appetite, became less choosy about foods, and gained weight. A startle
response during sleep was observed in 5 Ss, which probably coincided
with
REM sleep. These results are compared to those in other species and
those
from lesions in nearby regions of the brain.
Heath S. An ethologically sound treatment
for the spraying cat? Vet Times. 1996;
26(2): 21.
Heidenberger E. Housing
conditions and behavioural problems of indoor cats as assessed by their
owners. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. Vol 52(3-4), Apr
1997, pp. 345-364.
Horwitz D. Behavioral
and environmental factors associated with elimination behavior problems
in cats: A retrospective study. Applied Animal Behaviour
Science. Vol 52(1-2), Mar 1997, pp. 129-137.
Hunthausen W. Evaluating a feline facial
pheromone analogue to control urine spraying. Vet
med. Lenexa, Kan. Veterinary Medicine Publishing Group. Feb 2000. v. 95
(2) p. 151-155.
Melese-d’Hospital P. Eliminating urine
odors in the home. Readings in Companion
Animal Behaviour. Trenton: Veterinary Learning Systems, 1996; 191-197.
Mills DS, White JC. Long-term follow up of
the effect of a pheromone therapy on feline spraying behaviour. Vet Rec. 2000 Dec 23-30;147(26):746-7.
Overall KL. Animal behavior case of the
month. Urine spraying by a cat in a multicat household. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1994 Sep 1;205(5):694-6.
Treatments (PubMed Searches)
Articles
on pheromone treatments
Articles on behavior therapy
Neurosurgery for behavioral problems. A curiosity or the new wave? [Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 1982]
Objectionable urine spraying and urine marking in cats: evaluation of progestin treatment in gonadectomized males and females. [J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1980]
Causes of urine marking in cats and effects of environmental management on frequency of marking. [J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2001]
Animal behavior case of the month. Urine marking. [J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2003]
Evaluation of urine marking by cats as a model for understanding veterinary diagnostic and treatment approaches and client attitudes. [J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2002]
Cooper L, Hart BL. Comparison of diazepam
with progestin for effectiveness in suppression of urine spraying
behavior in cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc.
1992 Mar 15;200(6):797-801.
Abstract:
The most common treatment for urine spraying and marking in cats has
been administration of long-acting progestins. Treatment with diazepam
has
recently been gaining favor, particularly because of reported adverse
effects
of progestins. Results of a clinical trial involving 20 cats indicated
that
diazepam was effective in eliminating or markedly reducing spraying in
11
(55%) of them. However, most cats required continuous treatment, or at
least
intermittent treatment, when spraying recurred. The physiologic and
behavioral
dependency of cats on diazepam, which presumably develops over the
course
of administration, may contribute to the tendency for spraying to recur
once diazepam treatment is discontinued. Using data from previously
published
findings on progestin administration, plus additional cases, it was
documented
that a significantly (P less than 0.05) higher percentage of males than
females responded favorably. Although the number of cases was not
sufficient
for a statistical comparison of diazepam vs progestin treatment with
regard
to male vs female, possible gender difference in the effectiveness of
diazepam
was not indicated.
Eger C. The treatment of urine spraying in
cats by olfactory trachtotomy; a safe and humane option. Aust Vet Pract 1998; 18(4):147-154.
Hart BL. Olfactory tractotomy for control
of objectionable urine spraying and urine marking in cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1981 Aug 1;179(3):231-4.
Hart BL, Eckstein RA, Powell KL, Dodman NH. Effectiveness
of buspirone on urine spraying and inappropriate urination in cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1993 Jul 15;203(2):254-8.
Abstract:
The most frequent type of behavior problem in cats for which veterinary
consultation is sought is problem urination. Urine spraying and urine
marking have been treated by use of long-acting progestins and
diazepam, a benzodiazepine antianxiety drug. Effectiveness of the
nonbenzodiazepine antianxiety drug, buspirone, in suppressing urine
spraying and marking in 47 male and 15
female cats was evaluated. The effect of the drug in correcting
inappropriate
urination in 9 cats also was evaluated. Buspirone resulted in a
favorable
response (> 75% reduction) in 55% of cats treated for urine spraying
or marking. There was no sex difference in effectiveness of the
treatment,
but cats from single-cat households responded favorably significantly
(P
< 0.001) less frequently than those from multiple-cat households.
The
55% response rate was within the range of treatment effectiveness that
has
been reported for diazepam, and was greater than that reported for
progestin.
In contrast to diazepam, with which over 90% of treated cats resumed
spraying
or marking when the drug was gradually discontinued, only half of the
cats
treated with buspirone resumed spraying when the drug was discontinued
after
2 months of treatment (P < 0.001). This difference between diazepam
and
buspirone in resumption of urine spraying was attributed to diazepam's
induction
of physiologic and behavioral dependency, not found with buspirone.
Cats
that resumed spraying were placed on long-term treatment ranging from 6
to
18 months. Buspirone also did not cause the adverse effects of sedation
and
ataxia, which commonly are seen with diazepam treatment. In cats
treated
for inappropriate urination, 56% returned to normal litter box usage.
Komtebedde J, Hauptman J. Bilateral
ischiocavernosus myectomy for chronic urine spraying in castrated male
cats. Vet Surg. 1990 Jul-Aug;19(4):293-6.
Abstract:
Bilateral myectomy of the ischiocavernosus muscles was evaluated
prospectively in 10 castrated male cats as a treatment for chronic
urine spraying. The procedure was followed by a significant reduction
in the frequency of spraying during an observation period of 4 months.
Complications were not observed. Further studies are indicated.
Mills DS, Mills CB. Evaluation of a novel
method for delivering a synthetic analogue of feline facial pheromone
to control urine spraying by cats. Vet
Rec. 2001 Aug 18;149(7):197-9.
Abstract:
Twenty-two cats with a problem of urine spraying in the home were
enrolled onto a double-blinded placebo-controlled study designed to
evaluate the efficacy of feline facial pheromone (FFP) delivered
continuously into the atmosphere in the home through an electrically
heated diffuser for controlling the problem. The cats were randomly
assigned to treatment or control groups according to a predetermined
schedule and later analysis suggested that
there were no significant differences in the demographic
characteristics
of the two groups. Compared with a baseline week during which no
treatment
was given, the mean level of spraying was significantly lower in the
treated
group after four weeks, but not significantly lower in the control
group.
The baseline level of spraying and the treatment, but not the week of
treatment, were significant predictors of the amount of spraying during
the trial. However, only the type of treatment given was a significant
factor in the occurrence of new marks. Linear regression analysis
suggested that there was a significant relationship between the amount
of spraying and the duration of the use of FFP.
Pryor PA, Hart BL, et al. Effects of a
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor on urine spraying behavior in
cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2001 Dec
1;219(11):1557-61.
Abstract:
OBJECTIVE: To determine the effectiveness of a readily available
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), fluoxetine
hydrochloride, on reducing problem urine spraying in cats. DESIGN:
Randomized placebo-controlled
double-blind clinical trial. ANIMALS: 17 neutered cats > 1 year old
with objectionable urine spraying behavior. Procedure-Owners recorded
urine-spraying events for 2 weeks (baseline). Cats that vertically
marked
a mean of > or = 3 times per week were treated for 8 weeks with
fluoxetine
or fish-flavored liquid placebo. If urine spraying was not reduced by
70%
by weeks 4 through 5, the dosage was increased by 50% for weeks 7 and
8.
After discontinuation of treatment at the end of 8 weeks, owners
recorded
daily urine marks for another 4 weeks. RESULTS: The mean (+/- SE)
weekly
rate of spraying episodes in treated cats was 8.6 (+/- 2.0) at
baseline,
decreased significantly by week 2 (1.7 +/- 0.6), and continued to
decrease
by weeks 7 and 8 (0.4 +/- 0.2). The mean weekly spraying rate of cats
receiving
placebo was 7.8 (+/- 1.5) at baseline, decreased only slightly during
week
1 (5.5 +/- 1.8), and did not decline further. When treatment was
discontinued
after 8 weeks, the spraying rate of cats that had received treatment
varied.
The main adverse reaction to the drug was a reduction in food intake,
which
was observed in 4 of 9 treated cats. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL
RELEVANCE:
Administration of fluoxetine hydrochloride for treatment of urine
spraying
in cats can be expected to considerably reduce the rate of urine
marking.
The frequency of spraying before treatment is predictive of the
spraying
rate when the drug is discontinued.
Schwartz S. Use of cyproheptadine to
control urine spraying in a castrated male domestic cat. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1999 Aug 15;215(4):501-2, 482.
Abstract:
A 10-year-old castrated male domestic cat was admitted to the hospital
because of lifelong urine spraying of vertical surfaces. A diagnosis of
territorial urine marking was made. Laboratory analytes for urine
analysis, hemogram, serum biochemical analysis, and serum thyroxine
concentration were
within reference ranges, and testosterone concentration was consistent
with
the reference range of castrated male cats. Treatment included behavior
modification
and the administration of cyproheptadine, which resulted in the
immediate
arrest of undesirable urine marking. Cyproheptadine administration was
adjusted
to determine the lowest dosage that effectively maintained the cat's
consistent use of the litter box. Cyproheptadine administration was
recommended for
at least 1 year before any attempt to withdraw its use. A follow-up
phone
call to the owner 8 months after the beginning of treatment revealed
that
the cat continued to have remission of inappropriate urination.
Cyproheptadine, an antihistamine prescribed for its orexigenic effects
in cats, has antiandrogenic effects in other species. Information in
this report indicates that cyproheptadine is effective in the control
of urine spraying even in castrated cats.
Schwartz S. Use of cyproheptadine to
control urine spraying and masturbation in a cat. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1999 Feb 1;214(3):369-71, 351-2.
Abstract:
A 5-year-old male domestic longhair cat was examined because of urine
spraying and masturbation. The cat had sprayed urine from the time it
was acquired as a stray 4 years earlier. The cat was cryptorchid, and
at 1
year of age, the scrotal testicle was removed. The cryptorchid testicle
was surgically removed several months later; however, urine spraying
and
masturbation persisted. A diagnosis of territorial marking and
separation
anxiety was made. Serum testosterone concentration was within the
reference
range for sexually intact male cats. Treatment included behavior
modification
and administration of cyproheptadine (2 mg, p.o., q 12 h), which has
been
shown to have antiandrogenic effects in other species. Frequency of
urine
marking and masturbation decreased, along with serum testosterone
concentration. The cat continued to do well as long as medication was
given consistently. Eventually, the cat underwent a laparotomy for
removal of remnant testicular tissues but was then lost to follow-up.
White JC, Mills DS. Efficacy of synthetic
feline facial pheromone (F3) analogue (Feliway) for the treatment of
chronic
non-sexual urine spraying by the domestic cat. Proceedings First Int Conf Vet Behav Med.
Universities
Federation for Animal Welfare, Potters Bar, 1997; 242.
Web Sites
Meower Power Feral Cat Coalition Behavioral
treatment for spraying
Cornell Veterinary Medicine Feline
Behavior Problems
Blackshaw J K. Feline elimination problems.
Anthrozoös 1992;
5:52
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Cooper L, Hart BL. Comparison of diazepam with progestin with effectiveness in suppression of urine spraying behavior in cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1992; 200:797-801
Cooper LL. Feline inappropriate elimination. In:
Houpt KA, ed. Progress in Companion Animal Behavior. Vet Clin North Am Small,
Anim Pract. 1997; 27:569-600
Dehasse J. Feline urine spraying. Appl Anim
Behav Sc 1997; 52:365-371.
Eckstein RA, Hart BL. Pharmacologic approaches to urine-marking in cats. In: DodmanNH, Shuster L. eds. Psychopharmacology of Animal Behavior Disorders. Abingdon: Blackwell Science, 1998; 264-276.
Eger C. The treatment of urine spraying in cats by olfactory trachtotomy; a safe and humane option. Aust Vet Pract 1998; 18(4):147-154.
Hart BL: Behavioral and pharmacologic approaches to problem urination in cats. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 26:651-658, 1996
Hart BL, Eckstein RA, Powell KL, Dodman NH. Effectiveness of buspirone on urine spraying and inappropriate urination in cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1993; 203:254-258.
Hart BL. Olfactory trachtotomy for control of objectionable urine spraying and urine marking in cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1981; 179( 3):231-234.
Hart BL,
Hart LA.
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Marder AR. Psychotropic drugs and behavioural therapy. In: MarderAR, Voith VL, eds. Advances in Companion Animal Behavior. Vet Clin North Am 1991; 21(2):329-342.
Melese-d’Hospital P. Eliminating urine odors in
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Veterinary Learning Systems, 1996; 191-197
Overall KL: Diagnosing feline elimination disorders. Vet Med 93:350-362, 1998
Pryor, P.A. Hart, B.L. Cliff, K.D. Bain, M.J. (2001) Effects of a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor on urine spraying behavior in cats. JAVMA 219:11, 1557-1561.
Schwartz S. Use of cyproheptadine to control urine spraying in a castrated male domestic cat. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1999; 215(4): 501-502
Seksel, K. Feline Urine Spraying. In Recent Advances in Companion Animal Behavior Problems, Houpt K.A. (ed.) International Veterinary Information Service, 2000. (www.ivis.org). Online
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Books
Landsberg G, Hunthausen W, Ackerman L. Elimination
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Oxford
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Butterworth Heinemann, 1997; 79-95.
Johnson-Bennet, Pam.Twisted Whiskers: Solving your cats behavior problems.Crossing Press 1994.
