REFERENCES

Borchelt, P.L., Voith, V.L. Diagnosis and treatment of separation-related behavior problems in dogs.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 1982 Nov;12(4):625-35.

Burnum, J.F. The pet separation syndrome. Ann Intern Med. 2000 Aug 15;133(4):313-4.

Horwitz, D.F. Diagnosis and treatment of canine separation anxiety and the use of clomipramine hydrochloride (clomicalm).
J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2000 Mar-Apr;36(2):107-9. Review.

McMillan, F.D. More thoughts on separation anxiety. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2001 Dec 15;219(12):1674-5.

Overall, K.L. Animal behavior case of the month. A dog was examined because of profound separation anxiety.
J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1998 Jun 1;212(11):1702-4.

Overall, K.L., Dunham, A.E. Disagrees with alternative view of separation anxiety.
J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2001 Dec 1;219(11):1520, 1522.

Papurt, M.L. An alternative look at separation anxiety. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2001 Oct 1;219(7):910.

Roen, D.T. Thoughts on separation anxiety in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2000 Sep 15;217(6):818.

Schwartz, S. Separation anxiety syndrome in dogs and cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2003 Jun 1;222(11):1526-32. Review.

REFERENCES WITH ABSTRACTS

Appleby, D., Pluijmakers, J. Separation anxiety in dogs.The function of homeostasis in its development and treatment.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 2003 Mar;33(2):321-44. Review.
Abstract:
The model discussed here should help to provide an understanding of the range of stimuli that each dog needs for the maintenance of emotional homeostasis and the interplay between these stimuli and events in the dog's [table: see text] environment. In turn, this should aid in diagnosis and the setting of appropriate treatment plans.

Flannigan, G., Dodman, N.H. Risk factors and behaviors associated with separation anxiety in dogs.
J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2001 Aug 15;219(4):460-6.
Abstract:
OBJECTIVES: To determine potential risk factors and behaviors associated with separation anxiety and develop a practical index to help in the diagnosis of separation anxiety in dogs. DESIGN: Case-control study. ANIMALS: 200 dogs with separation anxiety and 200 control dogs with other behavior problems. PROCEDURES: Medical records were reviewed for signalment, history of behavior problems, home environment, management, potentially associated behaviors, and concurrent problems. RESULTS: Dogs from a home with a single adult human were approximately 2.5 times as likely to have separation anxiety as dogs from multiple owner homes, and sexually intact dogs were a third as likely to have separation anxiety as neutered dogs. Several factors associated with hyperattachment to the owner were significantly associated with separation anxiety. Spoiling activities, sex of the dog, and the presence of other pets in the home were not associated with separation anxiety. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results do not support the theory that early separation from the dam leads to future development of separation anxiety. Hyperattachment to the owner was significantly associated with separation anxiety; extreme following of the owner, departure cue anxiety, and excessive greeting may help clinicians distinguish between canine separation anxiety and other separation-related problems.

Lund, J.D., Jorgensen, M.C. Behaviour patterns and time course of activity in dogs with separation problems. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 1999 Apr 63(3):219-236.
Abstract:
An analysis of video-recordings of 20 dogs with separation problems suggests that separation behaviour may be divided into (1) exploratory behaviour, (2) object play including elements of predatory behaviour, (3) destructive behaviour, and (4) vocalizations. Elimination behaviour reported by other authors was found in 1 case only. Separation behaviour was related to the level of arousal. A clear distinction between 'destructive' dogs and 'howlers' was not justified. Object play seemed to be closely related to destructive behaviour. A model for the time course of activity from the owner's departure was developed. The model includes 2 components: (1) a cyclic component having a period of 23-28 min and controlled by internal factors, and (2) a long-term exponential decrease, which may be influenced by external factors arousing the dog. The results support the view that separation problems are caused by frustration related to the dependency on the owner, whereas they are not caused by disobedience or boredom. The frustration in turn may lead to arousal, increased fear, and the disinhibition of play or predatory behaviour, leading to destructive behaviour. Results also indicate that barking was caused by arousal, whereas howling and whining may reflect the presence of fear.
PsycINFO Database: "separation anxiety dogs"

Lem, M. Behavior modification and pharmacotherapy for separation anxiety in a 2-year-old pointer cross.
Can Vet J. 2002 Mar;43(3):220-2.>
Abstract:
Separation anxiety is a common behavioral problem in dogs. Treatment is based on developing a behavior modification protocol that gradually desensitizes and counter-conditions the dog to being left alone, by rewarding calm, relaxed behavior. Judicious use of pharmacotherapy can be a useful adjunct to a behavior modification program.

McCrave, E.A. Diagnostic criteria for separation anxiety in the dog.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 1991 Mar;21(2):247-55. Review.
Abstract:
Many social species, including dogs, exhibit distress responses when separated from attachment figures. Companion dogs with separation anxiety typically eliminate, vocalize, or engage in destructive behavior when left alone. The ability to differentiate separation anxiety from other behavior problems with the same presenting complaint is essential before embarking on a treatment plan. The behavior of the dog before, during, and after separation must be determined. Comparison of the unique behavioral profiles of each of the possible differentials will lead to an accurate diagnosis.

Overall, K.L., Dunham, A.E., Frank, D. Frequency of nonspecific clinical signs in dogs with separation anxiety, thunderstorm phobia, and noise phobia, alone or in combination.
J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2001 Aug 15;219(4):467-73.
Abstract:
OBJECTIVE: To determine the frequency of nonspecific clinical signs in dogs with separation anxiety, thunderstorm phobia, noise phobia, or any combination of these conditions and determine whether these conditions are associated in dogs. DESIGN: Case series. ANIMALS: 141 dogs. PROCEDURE: Diagnoses were established using specific criteria. Owners of dogs completed a questionnaire on how frequently their dogs exhibited destructive behavior, urination, defecation, vocalization, and salivation when the owners were absent and the types and frequency of reactions to thunderstorms, fireworks, and other noises. RESULTS: Associations of the 3 conditions and of various nonspecific clinical signs within and between diagnoses were nonrandom. The probability that a dog would have separation anxiety given that it had noise phobia was high (0.88) and approximately the same as the probability it would have separation anxiety given that it had thunderstorm phobia (0.86). However, the probability that a dog would have noise phobia given that it had separation anxiety (0.63) was higher than the probability that it would have thunderstorm phobia given that it had separation anxiety (0.52). The probability that a dog would have noise phobia given that it had thunderstorm phobia (0.90) was not equivalent to the converse (0.76). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggested that dogs with any of these conditions should be screened for the others. Interactions among these conditions are important in the assessment and treatment of dogs with > 1 of these conditions. Responses to noise were different from those to thunderstorms, possibly because of the unpredictability and uncertainty of thunderstorms.

Seksel, K., Lindeman, M.J. Use of clomipramine in treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder, separation anxiety and noise phobia in dogs: a preliminary, clinical study. Aust Vet J. 2001 Apr;79(4):252-6.
Abstract:
OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the efficacy and tolerance of a treatment protocol for obsessive-compulsive disorder, separation anxiety and noise phobia in dogs. DESIGN: A study was undertaken to assess clinical responses in 24 dogs diagnosed with one or more of three behavioural disorders stated above to a treatment regimen that included clomipramine and behaviour modification. PROCEDURE: A detailed behavioural and clinical history was obtained for each dog. Obsessive-compulsive disorder was diagnosed in nine cases: primary presenting complaints were tail-chasing, shadow-chasing, circling and chewing; one case was diagnosed with concurrent separation anxiety. Separation anxiety was diagnosed in 14 cases: presenting complaints included destruction, vocalisation and escaping in the absence of the owner; four cases also exhibited noise phobia. The study also included one dog diagnosed with noise phobia only and another with inappropriate fear responses. Clomipramine was administered orally twice daily. The starting dose was 1 to 2 mg/kg bodyweight. The dose was increased incrementally to a maximum of 4 mg/kg if needed. A behaviour modification program was designed and the owner instructed on its implementation. Dogs continued medication for at least 1 month after clinical signs disappeared or were acceptably reduced, then withdrawal of medication was attempted by decreasing drug dosage at weekly intervals while behaviour modification continued. RESULTS: The presenting clinical sign was largely improved or disappeared in 16 dogs, 5 demonstrated slight to moderate improvement and the behaviour was unchanged in 3. Clomipramine withdrawal was attempted in nine cases: this was successful in five. CONCLUSION: Clomipramine was effective and well-tolerated in controlling signs of obsessive-compulsive disorder and/or separation anxiety and/or noise phobia in 16 of 24 assessable cases, when used in combination with behaviour modification, and improvement in clinical signs was noted in 5 others.

Takeuchi, Y., Houpt, K.A., Scarlett, J.M. Evaluation of treatments for separation anxiety in dogs.
J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2000 Aug 1;217(3):342-5.
Abstract:
OBJECTIVE: To evaluate treatment outcome in dogs with separation anxiety and owner compliance with and perception of effectiveness of discharge instructions. DESIGN: Cohort study. ANIMALS: 52 dogs with separation anxiety. PROCEDURE: Sex, age at which the owner obtained the dog, age at which separation anxiety was first noticed, age at behavioral examination, and discharge instructions were obtained from medical records of each dog. Between 6 and 64 months after the behavioral examination, owners were contacted by telephone and questioned about the outcome of treatment, their compliance with discharge instructions, and their perception of the effectiveness of each instruction. RESULTS: Thirty-two (62%) dogs had improved, whereas 20 were the same, were worse, or had been euthanatized or given away. Mixed-breed dogs were significantly less likely to improve than purebred dogs. Compliance varied according to discharge instruction. Significantly fewer dogs with owners that were given > 5 instructions improved or were cured, compared with those with owners given fewer instructions. Twenty-seven dogs were also treated with amitriptyline or other medication; 15 (56%) improved. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Owners complied with instructions that involved little time such as omitting punishment and providing a chew toy at the time of departure. Owners were also willing to increase the dog's exercise but were not willing to uncouple the cues of departure from real departures or desensitize the dog to impending departure. Administration of psychoactive medication may be necessary to augment behavior modification techniques designed to reduce separation anxiety in dogs.

Takeuchi, Y., Ogata, N., et al.  Differences in background and outcome of three behavior problems of dogs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 2001 Jan; 70(4):297-308.
Abstract:
In order to characterize the 3 major behavior problems, aggression toward owners, aggression toward strangers, and separation anxiety, backgrounds of dogs and general outcomes of the behavioral treatment were analyzed retrospectively. There were 169 cases of aggression toward owners, 84 cases of aggression toward strangers, and 78 cases of separation anxiety which did not overlap each other during the 5 years from 1993 to 1997 at Cornell University Animal Behavior Clinic. Based on the case records, including discharge instructions, follow-up information, and presentation questionnaires, several variables were compared among these 3 groups. The sexual status of these groups was not statistically different, although dogs with aggression toward owners had the highest proportion of males and there were males in all behavior groups than in the hospital population. Age differences were apparent among the 3 groups in relation to when the dogs were obtained, and the separation anxiety group was different from at least one of the other groups in the age when first obtained, the age the owners first noticed the problem, and the age of behavioral examination. There were no significant differences among behavioral groups with regards to the proportion of dogs reported improved.
PsycINFO Database: "separation anxiety dogs"
 

• Seperation Anxiety in Dogs (Applied Ethology Home Page)
• Destructiveness Associated With Separation Anxiety by G. D. Bogard, DVM
• Separation Anxiety & Behaviors (Canines.Com)
• The Dog Who Cannot Be Left Alone by L. L. Cooper, DVM
• Severe Separation Anxiety: A Personal Experience by D. D'Amico
• Separation Anxiety: Another Look at a Common Problem by D. D'Amico
• Sable-ration Anxiety by D. Molay
• Is Your Dog Suffering from Separation Anxiety? by F. Moniz
• Separation Anxiety by M. Muns, DVM
• How to Handle Separation Anxiety & Separation Anxiety Q&A from B. J. Oliver, MA
• Separation Anxiety (PADS)
• Separation Anxiety (PetNet)
• Doggoned Separation Anxiety by S. Probst
• Dogs Who Love Too Much by K. Sollars
• Separation Anxiety by Dr. C. Welch
• Boredom vs. Separation Anxiety by D. Winkler & L. Rudolph