straysabs

Abstracts

Butler JR, Bingham J. Demography and dog-human relationships of the dog population in Zimbabwean communal lands. Vet Rec. 2000;147:442-6.

Dogs are Zimbabwe's primary vector for rabies, and the majority live in communal lands (traditional agropastoralist rural areas). In 1994, a household questionnaire survey was conducted to provide baseline data on the demography and dog-human relationships of the dogs in the communal lands. The survey showed that all the dogs were owned, and there was no evidence of a feral population. They were unrestricted and semi-dependent on people. The numbers of dogs per capita varied little in each communal land, resulting in higher dog densities in communal lands with higher human densities, and indicating that people were not intolerant of dogs at higher densities. The population turnover was rapid: the life expectancy of the dogs was 1.1 years, the mean age 2.0 years, and 71.8 per cent died in their first year. The population was heavily skewed towards juveniles, with 40.8 per cent aged less than 12 months. Despite the high juvenile mortality, the population was growing by 6.52 per cent per annum. It was estimated that in 1994 there were 1.36 million dogs in communal lands.

Childs JE, Robinson LE, Sadek R, Madden A, Miranda ME, Miranda NL. Density estimates of rural dog populations and an assessment of marking methods during a rabies vaccination campaign in the Philippines. Prev Vet Med. 1998;33:207-18.

We estimated the population density of dogs by distance sampling and assessed the potential utility of two marking methods for capture-mark-recapture applications following a mass canine rabies-vaccination campaign in Sorsogon Province, the Republic of the Philippines. Thirty villages selected to assess vaccine coverage and for dog surveys were visited 1 to 11 days after the vaccinating team. Measurements of the distance of dogs or groups of dogs from transect lines were obtained in 1088 instances (N = 1278 dogs; mean group size = 1.2). Various functions modelling the probability of detection were fitted to a truncated distribution of distances of dogs from transect lines. A hazard rate model provided the best fit and an overall estimate of dog-population density of 468/km2 (95% confidence interval, 359 to 611). At vaccination, most dogs were marked with either a paint stick or a black plastic collar. Overall, 34.8% of 2167 and 28.5% of 2115 dogs could be accurately identified as wearing a collar or showing a paint mark; 49.1% of the dogs had either mark. Increasing time interval between vaccination-team visit and dog survey and increasing distance from transect line were inversely associated with the probability of observing a paint mark. Probability of observing a collar was positively associated with increasing estimated density of the dog population in a given village and with animals not associated with a house. The data indicate that distance sampling is a relatively simple and adaptable method for estimating dog-population density and is not prone to problems associated with meeting some model assumptions inherent to mark-recapture estimators.

Daniels TJ, Bekoff M, eds. Population and social biology of free-ranging dogs, canis familiaris. J Mammal. 1989;70:754-762.

Population size and density, age structure, survivorship patterns, sex ratios, and social organization of urban, rural, and feral dog (Canis familiaris) populations were examined in Cd. Juarez, Mexico (urban site) and on the Navajo reservation (rural and wild sites) between June 1983 and December 1984. Urban and rural dogs were less social than expected whereas feral dogs characteristically lived in packs. Seasonal variation in the structure of feral dog packs was influenced by reproduction, both directly (pups born into the pack) and indirectly (pregnant females may temporarily emigrate form the pack to give birth). COPYRIGHT American Society of Mammalogists 1989

Matter HC, Wandeler AI, Neuenschwander BE, Harischandra LP, Meslin FX. Study of the dog population and the rabies control activities in the Mirigama area of Sri Lanka. Acta Trop. 2000;75:95-108.

The national health authorities of Sri Lanka have adopted a combined strategy of rabies vaccination and stray dog removal to control endemic dog rabies. Despite the control efforts, an increase of animal and human rabies cases has occurred since 1994. As a consequence, a project to evaluate the national rabies control program has been started and a study focussing on the dog population and rabies control activities in a limited area of Mirigama was conducted. Information on canine abundance and the accessibility of dogs for rabies vaccination was obtained by a household survey, vaccination of dogs against rabies at several vaccination points, collar-marking, and transect line recapture. The number of unvaccinated dogs was estimated by using Bayesian methodology. The estimated number of dogs per square kilometre was 87 (95% credibility interval: 80, 93) for owned dogs and 108 (100, 116) for owned and ownerless dogs. Coverage after the immunisation campaign was 57.6% (53.3, 61.9%) if vaccination at the vaccination points was considered and 66% (60.4, 72.0%) if recently provided vaccination by private veterinarians was also taken into account. The proportion of households with at least one dog vaccinated varied between 59.1 and 94.2% within the catchment area of the different vaccination points. Unvaccinated dogs were puppies (12%), ownerless dogs (57%), and owned dogs, which were not presented for vaccination (31%). In order to improve the rabies immunisation coverage among dogs and to achieve complete elimination of rabies it was recommended that the 95% catchment area of each vaccination point be assessed, the distribution of vaccination points in the vaccination area be redefined if necessary, a system for the vaccination of dogs missing the vaccination campaign for dog owner-specific reasons be established, and an inexpensive marking system be used for vaccinated dogs.

Nassar R, Mosier JE. Canine population dynamics: a study of the Manhattan, Kansas, canine population. Am J Vet Res. 1980;41:1798-803.

Analysis of the age distribution in the pet population of dogs in the community of Manhattan, Kansas from 1968 to 1979 revealed that the distribution was stationary and the rate of population change (lambda1) was close to 1, which means, that if present conditions do not change, the population probably would remain stable in size in the future. The number of females spayed in the Manhattan population reached a frequency of 66% in 1979. Considering only present age-dependent birth and survival rates, the population could not maintain itself and would decrease rapidly in size. It was found, however, that the population is maintained by a high net rate of immigration, with about 75% of all dogs under 6 months old coming from outside the Manhattan population. The ratio of people to dogs in Manhattan was estimated to be 4.14:1; about 41% of all dogs under 6 months of age were acquired through breeders. Roaming animals in 1 year represented about 12% of the canine population in Manhattan; of those, 36% were stray (not claimed by owner) and the rest were owned and redeemed. The data represented only a portion of the population (dogs with responsible owners) and for a complete understanding of the dynamics of the entire population, one should analyze roaming dogs in a similar way. The methods described in this study should be useful for collecting data to be used by veterinarians and municipal authorities confronted with proposals for regulation dealing with reproduction and pet population.

Nassar R, Mosier JE. Feline population dynamics: a study of the Manhattan, Kansas, feline population. Am J Vet Res. 1982;43:167-70.

Analysis of the age-specific birth and survival rates and the age distribution in the pet population of cats in Manhattan, Kansas, revealed that the rate of population change (lambda) was about 1.18. This means that under present birth and death rates, the cat population can increase by about 18% per year. In reality, the increase may not be as high since pet ownership may not increase by as much. The frequency of spayed females of reproductive age in the Manhattan population was about 59%. This may not be sufficient to curb population growth. With the present age-specific survival rates, about 88% of the females should be spayed if the population is to remain stable. The ratio of people to cats in Manhattan was estimated to be 5.2:1. The average number of cats per household was 0.508. The percentage of households with cats was 28 with an average of 1.74 cats per household. In comparison, the average number of dogs per household was 0.43 and the percentage of households with dogs was 43 with an average of 1.36 dogs per household. The methods used in this study are useful for collecting and analyzing data to be used by governmental bodies and veterinarians concerned with proposals to regulate pet population growth and reproduction.

Nassar R, Mosier JE, Williams LW. Study of the feline and canine populations in the greater Las Vegas area. Am J Vet Res. 1984;45:282-7.

Analysis of household dogs and cats, based on age-distribution data and on age-specific birth and survival rates, as well as on pet source, indicated that the dog and cat populations are stable and not increasing in size (lambda congruent to 1). Roaming dogs and cats euthanatized at the pound represented about 5.7% and 8.1% of the estimated dog and cat populations, respectively. The death at the pound seems to be effective in checking pet population growth. Among pets acquired, 84% were less than 1 year of age for dogs as compared with 88% for cats. Breeders and pet shops supplied about 7% of cats and 17% of dogs. About 10% of cats and 10% of dogs were acquired at the pound, while 6.4% of dogs and 14% of cats were acquired as stray. About 45% of dogs and 41% of cats were acquired from pet owners. Some dogs (12.46%) and cats (12%) were imported from outside the Las Vegas area. Of dogs and cats below 2 months of age, 33% and 19.5%, respectively, came from breeders or pet shops or were imported from outside the area. Seventeen percent of unspayed female dogs and 16% of unspayed female cats reproduced. The percentages of spayed females were 77 for dogs and 86 for cats. Forty-five percent of the dogs and 48% of the cats were males. Among dogs at the shelter, 2% were neutered and 26% spayed. At the pound, 24% of dogs were small breeds, 24% medium size breeds, and 52% large breeds.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Nunes CM, Martines Dde A, Fikaris S, Queiroz LH. Evaluation of the dog population in an urban area of southeastern Brazil. Rev Saude Publica. 1997;31:308-9.
TRANSLIT/VERNAC TITLE: Avaliacao da populacao canina da zona urbana do municipio de Aracatuba, Sao Paulo, SP, Brasil.

Planning control programs, for diseases such as rabies requires information on the size and structure of the dog and cat population. In order to evaluate the dog population of the urban area of Aracatuba city, S. Paulo State, Brazil, a survey was conducted using a questionnaire to interview members of households. Eighty-eight districts were visited (37,778 houses) and the interview was possible at 77.93% of these. Human population size evaluated was 113,157 inhabitants. Houses that owned animals represented 55.2%, 26,926 of the animals concerned were dogs and 5,755 were cats. Of the dogs, 56.64% were 1-4 year olds and males represented 56.2% of the total population. Dog: person ratio was estimated at 2.8 dogs to every 10 persons, almost 3 times the ratio hitherto estimated and used in the planning of rabies vaccination campaigns.

Prosperi S, Giovannini A, Ostanello F, Rossi T. Evaluation of the size of stray dog population and of related problems in Emilia-Romagna. Ann Ist Super Sanita. 1992;28:485-91.

An investigation was carried out on the diffusion of stray dog populations in Emilia-Romagna by submitting a questionnaire/interview. 30 gamekeeper officers and 21 public veterinarians of Bologna and Forli provinces were interviewed. The data collected were compared with the official data of the Health Council of the Emilia-Romagna Region. Statistical analysis confirmed a correlation between number of biting dogs and inhabitants of the province; number of captured dogs and registered dogs; number of biting dogs and owned dogs, and the existence of factors favouring dog straying in mountain areas.

Wandeler AI, Budde A, Capt S, Kappeler A, Matter H. Dog ecology and dog rabies control. Rev Infect Dis. 1988;10 Suppl 4:S684-8.

Dog populations, like other populations, depend on the availability of resources (food, water, and shelter). Humans either make available or deliberately withhold resources for varying proportions of dog populations. Dog-keeping practices and the duties of responsible ownership vary with the cultural setting. Dog populations often attain densities that allow the species to be a main host of rabies. The epidemiology of dog rabies is not well understood, despite the easy access to dog populations. Today dog rabies is predominant in developing countries. In addition to the high rate of exposure of humans to dogs, traditional medical beliefs and practices are the most important cultural factors that lead to high numbers of cases of human rabies. Dog rabies control programs have been successful in the past, but most are failing today. Program development should follow managerial principles and take into consideration the biology of dog populations as well as cultural constraints. Elimination of stray dogs is not an efficient means of controlling either the dog population or rabies, but it may create public awareness.

Barnett BD, Rudd RL. Feral Dogs of the Galapagos Islands: Impact and Control. Int J Stud Anim Prob. 1983;4:44-58.

Organisms introduced onto insular ecosystems, after they have become established, frequently increase to destructive numbers. Several species of mammals introduced onto the Galapagos Islands illustrate this ecological axiom. For example, domestic or pariah, and feral. Problems derived from their presence are most apparent on the islands of Santa Cruz and Isabela. Feral and pariah dogs are both scavengers and predators. While other introduced mammals (chiefly feral cattle and pigs) have served as prey, in recent years severe depredations on the unique endemic Galapagan fauna have been caused by the dogs. The chief targets have included land and marine iguanas, tortoises, and colonially nesting marine birds. To counter this problem, a coordinated and an eradication program on Isla Isabela, begun in 1981, continues with marked success. Control rests primarily on carefully placed flesh baits poisoned with Compound 1080 (sodium monofluoroacetate). Field studies on distribution, demography, behavior, and disease transmission also began on Isla Isabela in 1981. Particularly notable is the high incidence of filarial heartworm in several species of mammals, including the local human residents. Dogs are important reservoirs of this parasite. Descriptions of the problems created by the dogs and speculations on the nature of selective return to the wild state are presented.

Gacsi M, Topal J, Miklosi A, Doka A, Csanyi V, eds. Attachment behavior of adult dogs (canis familiaris) living at rescue centers: forming new bonds. J Comp Psych. 2001;115:423-431.

In this study, 60 shelter dogs (Canis familiaris) were observed in the modified version of the Strange Situation Test, which has proved to be a useful method for studying dogs' attachment behavior toward humans (J. Topal, A. Miklosi, V. Csanyi, & A. Doka, 1998). Before testing, 40 dogs were handled 3 times for 10 min. In the test, handled dogs encountered 2 persons: the handler in the role of the "owner" (OW) and an unfamiliar person (UP), whereas the 20 nonhandled dogs encountered unfamiliar persons in both roles. Dogs in the handled group exhibited more contact seeking with the entering OW, less physical contact with the UP, less frequent following of the leaving UP, and less standing by the door in the presence of the OW. The specific response of the handled dogs toward the handler fulfilled the operational criteria of attachment. In shelter conditions, the remarkable demand for social contact with humans may result in rather fast forming of attachment even in adult dogs.

Griffiths AO, Silberberg A. Stray animals: their impact on a community. Mod Vet Pract. 1975;56:255-6.

The statistical import of the study not-withstanding, we found the most serious problem to be the lack of understanding of the pet population crisis and compassion toward animals on the part of pet owners, as evident in the pet columns of the classified ads. Our study leads us to believe that pet owners are allowing the reproduction of kittens and puppies in such numbers that they often have no cash value and, in fact, the owners will spend money, in the form of advertising, to facilitate their disposal. The street observations indicated that relatively few animals (lessthan 1%) actually are allowed to run free. Dog bites occur at a ratio of 1:20 for the dog population. In the area under study, free roaming dogs and cats present a mild to moderate problem, originating from a small percentage of pet owners. Only a small amount of pet animal suffering occurs by death from environmental hazards (ie, automobiles), and there is just a moderate amount of intentional killing of nondersirable pet animals. We fell the method used in this study and the results obtained from it have importance elsewhere. It should be coupled with a broader based survey questionnaire to better establish the ratio of pet ownership to the general population and the reasons and benefits of pet ownership. We could then have the "facts" about the pet overpopulation problem, as well as better understand the community values toward pet animals. A complete report with additional accompanying tables is available from the senior author at Rural Route One, Urbana, Illinois 61801.

Hennessy MB, Voith VL, Mazzei SJ, Buttram J, Miller DD, Linden F, eds. Behavior and cortisol levels of dogs in a public animal shelter, and an exploration of the ability of these measures to predict problem behavior after adoption. Appl Anim Behav Sci. 2001;73:217-233.

Behavior and plasma cortisol levels were examined in puppies and juvenile/adult dogs admitted to a public animal shelter. A behavioral test was developed to assess the responses of the dogs to novel or threatening conditions. Factor analysis of the behavioral responses of 166 dogs on day 3 in the shelter yielded six factors (locomotor activity, flight, sociability, timidity, solicitation, and wariness) that accounted for 68% of the total variance. Among those dogs remaining in the shelter for 9 days, plasma cortisol levels declined from day 2 to 9. Cortisol levels were weakly related to factor scores. In order to explore the relation of measures in the shelter to later behavior, questionnaires assessing problem behaviors were mailed to new owners of dogs 2 weeks and 6 months following adoption. Among puppies, wariness scores were negatively correlated with behavior problems at 2 weeks and cortisol levels were negatively correlated with behavior problems at 6 months. These results suggest how measures of behavior and endocrine activity obtained in shelters might prove useful for screening dogs for adoption or targeting dogs for behavioral intervention.

Hennessy MB, Williams MT, Miller DD, Douglas CW, Voith VL, eds. Influence of male and female petters on plasma cortisol and behaviour: can human interaction reduce the stress of dogs in a public animal shelter? Appl Anim Behav Sci. 1998;61:63-77.

During their second or third day in public animal shelter, juvenile/adult dogs were exposed to a venipuncture procedure. Then the dogs were either not petted or were petted in a prescribed manner by either a man or a woman; 20 min later, a second blood sample was collected. There was a clear increase in cortisol levels 20 min after the first venipuncture in juvenile/adult dogs that were not petted, but not in dogs that were petted by either a man or a woman. Additional comparisons showed that the petting procedure also inhibited the cortisol response following venipuncture in puppies. However, petting did not reduce the cortisol response to housing in the shelter per se. During petting, dogs made few attempts to escape, frequently were observed in a relaxed posture, and panting was common in juvenile/adult dogs. When dogs were petted immediately following removal from the living cage, those petted by women yawned more often and spent more time in a relaxed, head-up posture. Together, these results indicate that a previously observed sex difference in the effectiveness of petters in reducing the cortisol response was not due to some difference in odor or other nonbehavioural stimulus quality of men and women. Subtle aspects of petting technique appear to have pronounced effects on physiological and possibly behavioural responses of dogs confined in a shelter. Petting may be an effective means of reducing the cortisol responses of dogs to other common aversive situations, such as routine medical examinations and vaccination procedures at veterinary clinics as well as shelters.

McCrindle CM, Cornelius ST, Schoeman HS. A survey of animal welfare needs in Soweto. J S Afr Vet Assoc. 1997;68:137-9.

The diagnostic phase of an interactive research evaluation model was used in the investigation of the animal welfare needs of a low-income urban community in South Africa. Data were gathered by means of a structured interview and direct observations by animal welfare officers. During the survey of 871 animal owners in Soweto, it was found that dogs were owned by 778 households and cats by 88 households. The dog to human ratio was estimated at 1:12.4. Respondents were asked whether they enjoyed owning animals and 96.1% said that they did. Only 26.3% mentioned that they had problems with their own animals and 16.6% had problems with other people's animals. Treatment of sick animals (29.7%) was seen as a priority. However, less than 1% (n = 6) used the services of private veterinarians. Others took their animals to welfare organisations or did not have them treated. Perceptions of affordable costs of veterinary treatments were also recorded. In addition to treatment, respondents indicated a need for vaccination (22.5%), sterilisation (16.5%), control of internal (3.7%) and external (8.8%) parasites, education and extension (6.6%), prevention of cruelty to animals (3.2%) and expansion of veterinary clinics to other parts of Soweto (1.3%).

Patronek GJ, Glickman LT, Beck AM, McCabe GP, Ecker C. Risk factors for relinquishment of cats to an animal shelter. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1996;209:582-8.

OBJECTIVE--To identify feline and household characteristics associated with relinquishment of a pet cat to an animal shelter. DESIGN--Case-control study. SAMPLE POPULATION--Households that relinquished cats for adoption (case households) and a random sample of current cat-owning households in the same community (control households). RESULTS--Potentially modifiable risk factors with the highest population attributable risk for relinquishment were owners having specific expectations about the cat's role in the household, allowing the cat outdoors, owning a sexually intact cat, never having read a book about cat behavior, cats having daily or weekly inappropriate elimination, and inappropriate care expectations. Frequency of inappropriate elimination and aggression toward people were not associated with declaw status, but these behaviors were more common among sexually intact cats, compared with sterilized cats. Owners of cats in case households were more likely than owners in control households to cite cost of sterilization as a reason a cat was sexually intact. Cats found as strays and cats acquired with minimal planning were at decreased risk of relinquishment. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS--The identified risk factors can be modified by cat owners and veterinarians to decrease the estimated 4 million cats euthanatized annually in animal shelters. Owner education programs are needed as well as increased awareness on the part of cat owners and veterinarians of the importance of resolving feline inappropriate elimination problems.

Posage JM, Bartlett PC, Thomas DK. Determining factors for successful adoption of dogs from an animal shelter. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1998;213:478-82.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether certain characteristics of dogs offered for adoption are associated with successful adoption. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. ANIMALS: 1,468 relinquished dogs offered for adoption at a local humane society. PROCEDURE: Data regarding dogs offered for adoption were obtained from surveys completed by previous owners. Data were analyzed by use of bivariate statistics and multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: Of dogs offered for adoption, 1,073 were successfully adopted, 239 were not adopted, and 157 were returned to the shelter after adoption. Terrier, hound, toy, and nonsporting breeds were found to be significantly associated with successful adoption (P < 0.05, chi 2 analysis). Certain coat colors (gold, gray, and white), small size, and history of an indoor environment were also significant predictors of successful adoption. The correlation coefficient (0.048) indicated that only a small percentage of variance in adoption success could be explained by the multiple logistic regression model. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Animal shelter managers with limited kennel capacity may wish to periodically use surveys to determine whether the type of dog being offered to the public reflects the type of dog the public will adopt.

Selby LA, Rhoades JD, Hewett JE, Irvin JA. A survey of attitudes toward responsible pet ownership. Public Health Rep. 1979;94:380-6.

The concerns of medical and community officials about responsible pet ownership have increased. Before a practical solution can be found for irresponsible ownership and community health problems associated with pet populations, the public's attitudes on issues related to responsible pet ownership must be determined. Such issues include attitudes on dog and cat overpopulation, potential public health problems associated with pet populations, and methods of controlling pet populations and stray animals. Responses to a questionnaire were used to evaluate the attitudes of 910 pet owners and nonowners toward factors comprising responsible pet ownership. The median age of the respondents was 33 years; 414 (45 percent) were men, and 496 (55 percent) were women. At the time of the study, 18 percent owned a cat and a dog, 35 percent owned only a dog, 11 percent showed only a cat, and 36 percent were nonowners. Not only the sex of the respondent but also the category of pet ownership affected opinions on overpopulation of dogs and cats, nuisance and pollution problems associated with these animals, and methods of controlling pet populations in the community. For example, owners agreed strongly on family planning for pets, but a majority of male owners stated that they would not have their dogs neutered.

Wells DL, Hepper PG. Prevalence of behaviour problems reported by owners of dogs purchased from an animal rescue shelter. Appl Anim Behav Sci. 2000;69:55-65.

This study examined the prevalence of behaviour problems exhibited by dogs within 4 weeks of acquisition from a rescue shelter in Northern Ireland. One thousand five hundred and forty-seven people who had purchased a dog from a rescue shelter in Northern Ireland were sent a postal questionnaire designed to collect information on the behaviours exhibited by their dog within the first month of acquisition. Five hundred and fifty-six people responded to the survey, representing a response rate of 37%. The majority of respondents (68.3%) reported that their dog exhibited a behaviour problem, the most common being fearfulness. Most of those respondents (89.7%) who returned their dog to the shelter did so because the animal exhibited behaviour that they considered undesirable. Male dogs showed more unacceptable behaviours than females, specifically inter-male aggression, sexual problems and straying tendencies. More stray dogs displayed undesirable behaviour than unwanteds, specifically straying tendencies. Puppies were less likely to exhibit unacceptable behaviours than juveniles or adults, particularly fearfulness, sexual problems and straying tendencies. More juvenile dogs showed excessive activity and excessive barking than puppies or adults. More adult dogs displayed aggression towards other dogs than juveniles or puppies. Findings indicate that dogs purchased from rescue shelters do exhibit behaviour problems that may lead to their return. The number of dogs admitted or returned to rescue shelters with behaviour problems may be reduced by raising public awareness regarding the value of behaviour therapy and introducing behaviour therapy schemes to rescue shelters.

Wells DL, Hepper PG, eds. A note on the influence of visual conspecific contact on the behaviour of sheltered dogs. Appl Anim Behav Sci. 1998;60:83-8.

Many institutions which house dogs cage their animals separately in an attempt to reduce the transmission of disease and/or injury. Under such conditions, dogs are usually able to receive auditory and olfactory stimulation from other animals. However, many kennels are designed in such a way to prevent visual contact with conspecifics. To date, the influence of visual conspecific contact on the behaviour of sheltered dogs has not been specifically addressed. This research examined the effects of visual contact with other dogs on the behaviour of dogs housed in a rescue shelter. Four hundred and seven dogs were studied: 212 dogs were housed in cages that allowed for visual contact with dogs in opposite pens; 195 dogs were deprived of visual contact with other dogs by being housed in cages opposite empty pens. The dogs' position in the cage (front, middle, back), activity (moving, standing, sitting, resting, sleeping), and vocalisation (barking, quiet, other) were recorded over a 4 h period. Dogs which were allowed visual conspecific contact spent significantly more of their time at the front of the pen (in a position to see other dogs) than animals denied such contact (87.7% vs. 24.6%, respectively). Visual canine contact had no effect on dog activity or vocalisation, and it is suggested that tactile contact is necessary before these behaviours are altered. Overall, results indicate that where dogs have the opportunity to observe others dogs, they take it. Where dogs are housed singly, the provision of visual intraspecific contact may help to reduce the under-stimulation commonly associated with single housing. Housing dogs in conditions which encourage the animals to the front of the cage, e.g., constructing pens which face opposite each other, may also help to improve a dog's chances of finding a new home by positively promoting visitors' perceptions of dog desirability.

Wells DL, Hepper PG, eds. The influence of environmental change on the behaviour of sheltered dogs. Appl Anim Behav Sci. 2000;68:151-162.

The majority of sheltered dogs are overlooked for purchase because they are considered undesirable by potential buyers. Many factors may determine a dog's appeal, although of interest here are the dog's behaviour and cage environment which can influence its desirability. People prefer dogs which are at the front rather than the back of the cage, quiet as opposed to barking, and alert rather than non-alert. Potential buyers also prefer dogs which are held in complex as opposed to barren environments. This study examined the behaviour of sheltered dogs in response to environmental change, to determine whether it influenced dog behaviour in ways that could be perceived as desirable to potential dog buyers, and/or had any effect upon the incidence of dogs purchased from the shelter. One hundred and twenty dogs sheltered by the Ulster Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals were studied over a 4-h period. The dogs' position in the cage, vocalisation, and activity were investigated in response to increased human social stimulation, moving the dog's bed to the front of the cage, or suspending a toy from the front of the dog's cage. Social stimulation resulted in dogs spending more time at the front of the enclosure, more time standing, and slightly more time barking. Moving the bed to the front of the cage encouraged dogs to this position, but did not influence activity or vocalisation. Suspending a toy at the front of the pen exerted no effect on dog behaviour, although its presence in the pen may help to promote more positive perceptions of dog desirability. The incidence of dogs purchased from the rescue shelter increased whenever the dogs' cages were fitted with a bed at the front of the pen, whenever the dogs were subjected to increased regular human contact, and whenever a toy was placed at the front of the enclosure. Findings highlight the important role that cage environment can play in shaping the behaviour of sheltered dogs and influencing whether or not an animal will become purchased.

Hart LA, Mader B. The successful introduction of pets into California public housing for the elderly. Cal Vet. 1986;40:17-27.

One of the ways in which elderly people living in apartments can improve the quality of their lives is by having a pet dog or cat. Yet, until very recently this was not possible in public housing because of restrictive rules. As a pioneer in changing the restrictive legislation, in 1982 the California State Legislature passed legislation permitting elderly people in public housing to keep up to two pets. Although the new legislation has been in effect now for several years, little is known about its impact on housing management and residents. Meanwhile, federal legislation passed in 1983 provides similar rights of pet ownership for residents of assisted rental housing for the elderly or handicapped.

Hart LA, Kidd AH. Potential pet ownership in U.S. rental housing. Canine Pract. 1994;19:24-28.

Considering the increasing evidence that companion animals can play a role in enhancing human health, it is important to know the extent to which pet ownership is curtailed by restrictive requirements in rental housing. In order to estimate the number of new pets which likely would be adopted if pet ownership were permitted in all rental units, it was assumed that 35% of households not currently permitted pets would acquire them if allowed. The percentage of privately owned rental units that do not currently allow pets was estimated at 50%. Agencies provided data for : the number of rental units in federally and state-assisted housing, the portion of those permitting pets; and the total number of available rental housing units in the U.S. It was estimated that 6,540,880 new pets could be placed if permitted in all rental units. Veterinarians can assist in helping increase pet ownership through education programs on the benefits of pets, pet selection, and management.

Hart LA, Fox S, Rogers J. Acceptance of dogs and cats in mobile home parks. Canine Pract. 1992;17:24-28.

Despite increasing evidence that pets can be beneficial to elderly people, animals often are not permitted in apartment complexes. To explore an alternative for elderly people desiring a pet, a survey of the managers of mobile home parks was conducted in Sacramento, California. Among the parks, 85% allowed residents to keep cats and/or dogs. When allowed, 45% of residents kept pets. These figures were similar to those of four other United States cities that were surveyed as a comparison. Although mobile home parks generally permitted and housed a high density of pets and had few guidelines, they experienced little negative impact from pets. Mobile home parks appear to offer an economic housing alternative where pets generally are allowed.

Kidd AH, Kidd RM, George CC. Veterinarians and successful pet adoptions. Psych Rep. 1992;71:551-557.

Because Kidd, Kidd, and George in 1992 reported that owners' ignorance of species-specific animal behaviors, unrealistic expectations for the roles pets play in their children's lives, and expense and time required for ownership and caretaking are major reasons why many cats and dogs are adopted from humane societies and then rejected each year, it is important to assess whether better education of prospective adopters increases retention of pets. Since veteriarians in private practice deal with clients more closely, answering questions, discussing training methods, and helping with problems and difficulties before or after they arise, we hypothesized that veterinarians' clients would reject significantly fewer newly adopted pets and have significantly fewer unreasonable expectations for roles pets would play in their children's lives than would humane society adopters. 18 male and 57 female clients completed a demographic questionnaire and George's 1989 Pet Expectations Inventory, which rates the physical and emotional impact of roles pets and expected to play in their lives, and the 5 fathers and 26 mothers also rated the roles expected to affect their children's lives. At six months, follow-up phone calls ascertained whether clients still had the newly adopted pets and if not, why not. Analysis showed that veterinarians' clients rejected significantly fewer pets and had fewer unreasonable expectations for pets' roles in their own and their children's lives than did humane society adopters.

Kidd AH, Kidd RM, George CC. Successful and unsuccessful pet adoptions. Psych Rep. 1992;70:547-561.

To investigate possible reasons why millions of cats and dogs are adopted and then rejected each year, 120 male and 223 female adopters from the San Francisco Bay Area shelters completed George's Pet Expectations Inventory, which rates the physical, emotional, and intellectual effects of roles pets are expected to play, and the 50 fathers and 89 mothers rated the roles expected to affect their children's lives. Six-month phone call follow-ups ascertained whether they still had the adopted pet, and if not, why not. Analysis of responses indicated that: (1) subjects who already had or previously had pets retained significantly more newly adopted pets than those who had never had pets. (2) Men rejected a significantly higher percentage of pets than did women, as did significantly more parents than nonparents. (3) Although there were no significant differences in total scores between subjects who retained and those who rejected pets either for themselves or for their children, specific role expectations differed considerably between men and women, parents and nonparents, and retainers and rejecters. Adopters held higher expectations for dogs than for cats. Present results could help shelter workers reduce the number of adopted pets abandoned and euthanized.

Patronek GJ, Glickman LT, Beck AM, McCabe GP, Ecker C. Risk factors for relinquishment of dogs to an animal shelter. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1996;209:572-581.

Objective-To identify canine and household characteristics associated with relinquishment of a pet dog to an animal shelter. Design-Case-control study. Sample Population-Households that relinquished dogs for adoption (case households) and a random sample of current dog-owning households in the same community (control households). Results-Potentially modifiable factors that explained the highest proportion of relinquishment were owners not participating in dog obedience classes after acquisition, lack of veterinary care, owning a sexually intact dog, inappropriate care expectations, and dogs having daily or weekly inappropriate elimination. Dogs obtained from shelters, kept in crates, or acquired at >=6 months of age were at increased risk of relinquishment. Greater purchase price was associated with decreased risk of relinquishment, but relinquishment was not associated with the degree of planning to acquire the dog. Dogs with behavioral problems and little veterinary care were at greater risk of relinquishment than were dogs with regular veterinary care, and behavioral problems were associated with inappropriate care expectations. Clinical Implications-Risk factors identified in this study can be modified by dog owners and veterinarians to decrease the estimated 2 million dogs euthanatized annually in animal shelters. Veterinarians should educate owners about typical dog behavior, routine care requirements and training, and the importance of regular veterinary visits; should incorporate wellness concepts in their practice; and should focus on preventive medicine and behavioral consultation.

New JC, Salman MD, King M, Scarlett JM, Kass PH, Hutchison JM. Characteristics of shelter-relinquished animals and their owners compared with animals and their owners in U.S. pet-owning households. J Appl Anim Welf Sci. 2000;3:179-201.

Animal shelters in the United States annually receive millions of relinquished dogs and cats, and risk factors for relinquishment are not fully understood. Investigators sponsored by the National Council on Pet Population Study and Policy interviewed people who relinquished dogs and cats at 12 shelters in four regions. We collected similar data from a sample of U.S. households with companion animals. Data collected included nonhuman animal characteristics such as age, sex, and frequency of selected behaviors. We also obtained data on keepers' (owners') age, sex, and level of education as well as their general knowledge of pet care and behavior. We found that relinquishment was associated with physical and behavioral characteristics of the animals and owner characteristics and knowledge. Relinquished animals were more likely to be intact, younger, and mixed bred. People relinquishing animals were significantly more likely to be men and younger than 35 years. Duration of ownership was significantly shorter for relinquished animals.

Ben Youssef S, Matter HC, Schumacher CL, et al. Field evaluation of a dog owner, participation-based, bait delivery system for the oral immunization of dogs against rabies in Tunisia. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1998;58:835-45.

We evaluated a dog owner, participation-based, bait delivery system for the oral immunization of dogs against rabies. In a field study in a semirural area of northern Tunisia, dog owners were asked to come to temporary bait delivery sites. A total of 314 baits were given to 178 dog owners in four sites. The experimental baits used consisted of a freeze-dried core unit containing sulfadimethoxine (SDM) as a biological marker and an aromatized paraffin envelope. No vaccine was used. Preliminary tests had shown that by using a rapid commercial card test, positive SDM serum levels were detected in more than 95% of dogs up to two days after bait ingestion. During the two days following bait delivery, we visited more than 95% of all households in the study area and took blood samples from as many owned dogs as possible. Unconsumed baits were recovered and human contacts with the bait matrix were recorded. The campaign required 7.6 person-min per bait and 13.5 person-min per dog owner for providing baits, gloves, and instructions. The estimated average cost effectiveness ratio per dog accepting a bait was 1.7 US dollars. From the indications given by the dog owners and the results of the SDM test, it was concluded that 85-90% of the owned dogs in the study area had consumed a bait at least partially. Of 314 baits delivered, 78.7% were fully consumed by dogs and 4.1% were recovered during the household survey. The remaining baits (17.2%) that were not recovered were either not consumed or only partially consumed by the target dogs (3.7 baits per 100 inhabitants). These baits probably remained within the highly populated areas and were potentially accessible to other domestic animals and other nontarget species, including humans. Twenty-five unprotected human contacts with baits were recorded (1.7% of all inhabitants). Our study has demonstrated the potential of dog owner based bait delivery. This technique is simple and efficient, particularly if the human population is accustomed to mass immunization in defined centers. Before applying this method on a large scale with live vaccine loaded baits, further studies should focus on minimizing the number of human contacts with the vaccine bait, systematizing contact identification and establishing structures in ensuring proper treatment if exposure to vaccine should occur.

Matter HC, Schumacher CL, Kharmachi H, et al. Field evaluation of two bait delivery systems for the oral immunization of dogs against rabies in Tunisia. Vaccine. 1998;16:657-65.

Two bait delivery systems for the oral immunization of dogs against rabies were tested in small scale field trials in a semi-rural area in Tunisia: bait delivery to owned dogs during door to door visits of households (door to door baiting) and distribution of baits on transect lines (transect line baiting). A prototype bait (DBL2) configured for industrial production and containing either sulfadimethoxine (SDM) as a systemic marker or Rhodamine B as a topical marker was used. The overall proportion of dogs which took a bait and presented topical marker staining after door to door baiting was 59.1%. The total time and costs spent per bait accepting dog averaged 34 person minutes and US$4, respectively. Unconsummated baits were readily recovered. No unprotected human contacts with baits were recorded. Door to door baiting is a very specific but time-consuming method that enables a safe administration of vaccine baits to owned dogs. For transect line baiting, baits were distributed at a density of ca 3000 baits per km2 along double transect lines. Baits were recovered after 20 h. According to the proportion of SDM positive serum samples, 24.1% of owned dogs in the baiting area had consumed baits. Of all owned and ownerless dogs, presumably free-roaming during transect line baiting, > 40% had consumed baits. The total time and costs spent per bait accepting dog averaged 48 person minutes and ca US$20, respectively. The household census revealed 32 direct human contacts with the bait matrix which corresponds to 1.4% of inhabitants. Placing baits on transect lines gives the possibility to vaccinate dogs not accessible by vaccination systems which base on dog owner participation. However, the method is not specific, less safe than other systems, not easily accepted by the human population, and costly.

Wells DL, Hepper PG. Prevalence of disease in dogs purchased from an animal rescue shelter. Vet Rec. 1999;144:35-8.

The prevalence of diseases suffered by dogs within two weeks of their acquisition from a rescue shelter in Northern Ireland was investigated. A postal questionnaire was completed by 556 people who had purchased a dog from the Ulster Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (USPCA) to provide information on the diseases suffered by their dog. The majority of the dogs (53.7 per cent) had an ailment the most common being coughing and diarrhoea. Of the respondents who returned their dog to the USPCA, 92 per cent did so because the animal was unhealthy. Stray dogs were more likely to have an ailment than unwanted dogs, specifically coughing, and/or skin problems. More puppies suffered from parvovirus, vomiting, and/or diarrhoea than did juveniles or adults. Adult dogs were more likely to have a cough than juveniles or puppies. There was no association between the sex of the dogs and their ailments.

Lord LK, Wittum TE, Neer CA, Gordon JC. Demographic and needs assessment survey of animal care and control agencies. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1998;213:483-487.

Objective-To characterize demographic and needs assessment information for animal care and control agencies in Ohio. Design-Mail survey. Sample Population-222 animal care and control agencies. Procedure-A questionnaire was mailed to animal care and control agencies in Ohio. Data were collected for 1996. Results-Of 222 agencies contacted, 180 (81%) responded. Agencies estimated that they spent $28.4 million ($2.47/person). Approximately 339,207 animals were taken in, comprising 214,143 (63%) dogs, 114,877 (34%) cats, and 10,187 (3%) wildlife or other species. Of these animals, a fourth were adopted, about a tenth were reclaimed by their owners, and two thirds were euthanatized. Approximately 302,589 animal control complaints were received, and 22,053 (7%) citations were issued. One hundred three (57%) agencies reported 25,564 cruelty complaints; criminal charges were filed for 543 (2%) cases, with 445 (82%) resulting in guilty verdicts. Among 155 agencies that provided information, 87 (56%) had spay/neuter policies. Only 69 of 178 (39%) agencies reported an association with a veterinarian. Less than half (64/150; 43%) of the agencies administered vaccinations, and 69 of 152 (45%) treated animals for intestinal parasites. The top 5 things needed by agencies were capital/facility improvements, increased funding, improved legislation for animals, educational needs, and veterinary services. Clinical Implications-In Ohio in 1996, 9.9% of dogs and 4.5% of cats received care or assistance from animal care and control agencies. Only 39% of animal care and control agencies have an association with a veterinarian.

Mertens P, Unshelm J. Veterinary surveillance in animal shelters--defects and potentials. Dtsch Tierarztl Wochenschr. 1994;101:232-7.

Looking after the stock of local animal shelters takes a considerable part of the field of activity of veterinarians. Because of the recent situation on the job market it is of interest for the veterinary profession to provide and extend this scope of duties. In order to give a comprehensive survey of the possibilities of curative and preventive herd advising in animal shelters, 369 managers of German animals shelters were asked to answer a questionnaire containing 92 answers, concerning the situation in the animal shelter. The answers of 144 animal shelters go to prove the following results. In 41% of the animal shelters veterinarians are visiting for rounds in regular intervals, 46% of the shelters are calling the veterinarians only if needed. 1% of the animal shelters bring sick animals into the clinic and 1% does not provide any medical care for the animals. At the moment 11% of the questioned animal shelters offer positions for veterinarians. In these case a significantly better, mainly preventive medical care is found compared to shelters without regular medical care. Deworming (98%) and vaccinations (91%) are provided routinely for dogs being brought to the animal shelter recently. In 46% of the animal shelters employees vaccinate dogs during the absence of a veterinarian. Therefore, 36% of the animal shelters bring new dogs into contact with the others without a soundness examination. Even though 60% of the animal shelters dispose quarantine units, dogs are only isolated for 7 days in average in 15% of the animal shelters. The most common disease of dogs in animal shelters is diarrhoea.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Risbey DA, Calver M, Short J. Control of feral cats for nature conservation. I. Field tests of four baiting methods. Wildl Res. 1997;24:319-326.

Four methods of baiting were evaluated on a radio-collared population of feral cats on Heirisson Prong, Shark Bay, Western Australia. Dried-meat baits, baiting rabbits to kill cats through secondary poisoning, a fishmeal-based bait and a bait coated in the flavour enhancer Digest were tested. All proved to be ineffective for controlling feral cats. Future research should explore baits more 'natural' in appearance and the effect of visual lures, and possibly bait over a larger area to increase the number of cats exposed to baits.

Rusch T, ed. Housing of dogs and cats in animal shelters. Dtw (Deutsche Tieraerztliche Wochenschrift). 1999;106:166-9.

The results of an examination of 10 animal shelters was, that anyone was unical. The everyday and fundamental problems in administration, housing animals and animal care were the same: Most of them employ laity, which do their job with a lot of commitment but without knowledge. Therefore they come into conflict with the demands of animal protection. Veterinary surgeons, responsible authorities and communities are strongly asked to take steps against the situation. The reason for the fact, that such steps are missed, is, that there is no guideline or recommendation available for these persons, wich handles animal shelters relative to "animal justice" and the right housing of animals. The results of the survey helps to make a guideline for animal home owners and builders, veterinary surgeons, veterinary authorities and communities, which gives suggestions to build, equip and run animal shelters for cats and dogs responsible regarding the individual circumstances and in the best way for animals.

Shore ER, Girrens K. Characteristics of animals entering an Animal Control or Humane Society shelter in a midwestern city. J Appl Anim Welf Sci. 2001, 4:105-115; 13 Ref.

This study compared companion animals entering a humane society shelter with those entering an animal control shelter in the same city, and both to data on companion animals in the area. The study compared stray and relinquished animals. Adult dogs were more numerous than pups, particularly at the Animal Control facility, whereas cats and kittens entered the shelters in roughly equal proportions. Further, the study identified a very small proportion of both cats and dogs as having been altered. Labrador retrievers, German shepherds, chow chows, and rottweilers were the most common breeds at both shelters, and the last three appear to be overrepresented in comparison with their prevalence among owned dogs. Results are discussed in terms of their contribution to understanding local and regional differences in shelter populations and community use of two types of shelters, as well as in terms of the challenges facing Animal Control and Humane Society staff.

Sonderegger SM, Turner DC, eds. Introducing dogs into kennels: prediction of social tendencies to facilitate integration. Anim Welf. 1996;5:391-404.

Ethological observations of the introduction of new charges into a large mixed-sex group in a dog shelter, and the later behaviour of the dogs in the run, were used to investigate a method of early assessment of the dogs' reactions to the new situation. Subjects were divided qualitatively into four categories according to their interactional behaviour during the first two days ('dog-oriented', 'human-oriented', 'dog & human friendly', 'asocial' classification was compared to an independent division resulting from statistical analysis of the dogs' entry-sequences, and was found to be consistent for 80 per cent of dogs. One week after entry, both female and male dogs received distinctively fewer social interactions by conspecifics and tended to direct more interaction-initiating behaviour towards the keeper, thus demonstrating an integration process; females became more physically active and initiated significantly more interactions with other dogs; for males, the contrary was found. Qualitative comparison between first visitors and regular guests suggest that experienced dogs integrate faster, showing fewer behavioural signs of distress and engaging more often in investigatory behaviour. Results indicate that the assessment of dogs from their behaviour during the entry-sequence is a valid method to predict later tendencies. Males and females should be handled differently during introduction. The stress of entry into an existing group can therefore be reduced, improving the animals' welfare.

Courchamp F, Cornell SJ. Virus-vectored immunocontraception to control feral cats on islands: a mathematical model. J Appl Ecol. 2000;37:903-913.

1. Feral cats Felis catus introduced onto oceanic islands pose a major ecological threat to endemic vertebrates, but their control is difficult. Immunocontraception has not been considered previously as a method for their control or eradication, and therefore we used a modelling approach to assess whether virus-vectored immunocontraception (VVIC) might be effective. 2. We compared the relative efficiency of cat control/eradication using immunocontraception and three different disseminating techniques, i.e. baits, genetically modified viral vectors, or both. We accounted for several forms of dynamic compensation likely to arise in a population with artificially reduced fertility. 3. We conclude that, under the assumptions of our model, immunocontraception can control or eradicate feral cats on oceanic islands. VVIC was found to be a more efficient dissemination technique than baits, but an integrated method involving viral-infected baits was the most likely to lead to eradication. 4. We advocate field trials of this VVIC technique, when available, under island conditions where any risks to non-target fauna would be minimal.

Fayrer-Hosken RA, Dookwah HD, Brandon CI. Immunocontrol in dogs. Anim Reprod Sci. 2000;60-61:365-373.

Population control in dogs and cats is an important goal for many groups. Control measures over the years has included surgery, hormonal therapy and more recently immunological control. The current presentation discusses dog population control with an emphasis on immunologic control. Specifically, vaccination with purified zona pellucida (ZP) glycoproteins leads initially to immunocontraception and then to the profound and irreversible changes of immunosterilization. The preliminary studies are extremely encouraging on developing a vaccine for lasting canine population control.

Gupta SK, Srivastava N, Govind CK, Sivapurapu N, Gahlay GK. Comparative molecular biology and immunobiology of zona pellucida glycoproteins: fundamentals and applied aspects for contraception. Pinsa-B. 2000;66:33-48.

Zona pellucida (ZP), an acellular envelope that surrounds the mammalian oocyte, is composed of three glycoproteins-ZPA, ZPB, and ZPC. The ZP glycoproteins play a crucial role in the initial attachment followed by tight binding of the spermatozoa to the oocyte and subsequent complex cascade of events during fertilization. Due to their critical involvement during fertilization, ZP glycoproteins have been proposed as candidate antigens to develop an immunocontraceptive vaccine for fertility regulation. Towards designing of an immunocontraceptive vaccine for the control of stray dog population and thereby reducing the incidence of rabies, we have successfully cloned and expressed dog ZPA and ZPC in Escherichia coli. In addition, bonnet monkey (Macaca radiata) ZPA, ZPB, and ZPC have also been cloned, sequenced and expressed in E. coli as polyhistidine fusion proteins. Comparison of the deduced amino acid sequence of these three zona proteins showed very high sequence homology with the respective human homologues. Polyclonal antibodies against recombinant bonnet monkey ZPA, ZPB, and ZPC recognized native bonnet monkey and human ZP. Moreover, antibodies against recombinant bonnet monkey ZPB inhibited, in vitro, the human sperm-oocyte binding. Simultaneously, attempts have been made to design synthetic peptide immunogens based on the immunologically relevant B-cell epitopes mapped by monoclonal antibodies capable of inhibiting, in vitro, sperm-oocyte binding. Availability of recombinant zona proteins and synthetic peptide immunogens will allow us to undertake active immunization studies to determine the prospects of ZP based immunocontraceptive vaccines for fertility regulation.

Jochle W. Manipulation of reproduction with hormones in cat. Monatshefte Fuer Veterinaermedizin. 1993;48:159-160, 162-164, 166.

Knowledge in feline reproductive biology is limited. This has prevented the development of new approaches for cat population control beyond the long known effectiveness of oral progestins for estrus suppression or interruption of the cycle. An exception is the use of prolactin inhibitors which are highly effective and safe for the induction of abortions during the second half of pregnancy. Prostaglandin F-2alpha may be used during the same phase of gestation to cause abortion but side effects and its inability to regress the mammary gland make it a less attractive option. PGF-2alpha on the other hand, has opened new approaches to a conservative therapy of the open pyometra in the queen. Anestrus in season responds well to treatment with gonadotropins (PMSG, FSH and hCG), and unwanted lactation can be controlled quickly and effectively with prolactin inhibitors. Undesirable, sex related behavioral patterns like urinary marking (spraying) after neutering and spraying can be controlled with progestins only in a limited percentage of cases. These nonresponders can be controlled to 50 to 60% with diazepam, requiring long-term therapy.

Jochle W, Jochle M. Reproduction in a feral cat population and its control with a prolactin inhibitor, cabergoline. J Reprod Fertil Suppl. 1993;47:419-24.

A feral cat population (12 females, 13 males) was observed almost daily for 6 years, at a location 40.53 degrees N and 74.29 degrees W. Cats were accustomed to twice-daily feeding. Oestrous behaviour was seasonal and started in early January, irrespective of climatic conditions, with peak levels of oestrous activities in late January and February. Of all 60 heat periods observed, and conceptions recorded, the percentage occurrence was 58 and 49 in the first quarter, and 29 and 33, 12 and 16 and 1 and 2 in the second, third and fourth quarter, respectively. Queens could be reliably identified as being pregnant by 31.5 +/- 5.82 days, and were subjected between days 36 and 57 of gestation to daily oral treatment with 5-15 micrograms cabergoline kg-1 placed on food. Treatments (n = 41) from days 36 +/- 6.17 to 40.8 +/- 6.96 resulted in abortion in all animals on day 40.5 +/- 6.19; if treatment started as late as day 48.5, and lasted 9 or more days, premature parturition occurred. As cabergoline had caused mammary gland regression within 36-48 h, litters could not be nursed and perished quickly. Five repeatedly aborted queens were subsequently allowed to go to term. Pregnancies, gestation length (64.5 days), parturitions, maternal care and lactations were normal. Of the 24 kittens born out of seven pregnancies, 16 were observed from 6 months to 3 years. Pubertal oestrus and first conceptions occurred at 189.9 days (range 150-214 days) and 212.0 days (155-277 days), respectively. Males were seen to achieve reproductive success in their third year only.

Popydorou K. Stray-dog control in Cyprus: Primitive and humane methods. Int J Stud Anim Prob. 1983;4:146-151.

In Cyprus, a dog control scheme was started in 1971 within the context of an all-inclusive anti-echinococcosis campaign. At the time, it was estimated that there were more than 100,000 dogs in the island, almost all of which were strays (even many of those that were purportedly "owned"). These had been identified as infectious agents of echinococcosis in Cyprus (the average surgical incidence in humans, over the 30-year period prior to 1970, was 12.9/100,000). The destruction of stray dogs is accomplished by using guns that fire a syringe containing a euthanizing drug. In the past (prior to 1970), various inhumane methods used by dogcatchers or other individuals included hitting the dog on the head with a sharp tool, hanging the dog from a tree, poisoning it with baits, or shooting it with a hunting gun. Despite an initial negative reaction on the part of both the general public and dog owners, the organized destruction of stray dogs that started in 1971 was continued without interruption. At present, the dog population is under control, and all stray and unwanted dogs are euthanized. The Cyprus experience, in which the initiative for dog control was undertaken by the Department of Veterinary Services, can well serve as an example for many other countries.

Kass PH, Hart LA, Scarlett JM, New JG Jr., Salman MD. Determinants of relinquishment to animal ashelters in Sacramento County, California: a case-control study.

With each passing year, dogs and cats that are euthanized at animal shelters for no other reason than the lack of a home number in the millions. This would easily be the most important modern epidemic to affect dog and cat populations were it not for the fact that the number of shelter deaths remains consistently high from year to year, making this a more endemic than epidemic issue. Although there has been a tendency to characterize the source of this pet overpopulation problem as simply a function of inadequate low-cost spay/neuter options in communities, the problem is clearly more complex and multifactorial. Indeed, it would be more appropriate to contend that a constellation of pet, owner, and sociological issues interplay in a way that ultimately leads to the breakdown of the per-owner relationship, resulting in relinquishment.
We undertook a case-control study to better understand those characteristics of dog and cats and their owners that appeared to increase the risk of relinquishment of the pet to animal shelters. This research built upon the foundation laid in the National Shelter Study, which described animals relinquished to shelters in four geographic regions of the United States, as well as the owners of these animals. This study extends the National Shelter Study by including a comparison group from the source (reference) population of animals relinquished to shelters. Our goal was to measure potential risk factors, and quantify the proportionate changes in risk of relinquishment across levels of these factors.

Hart LA, Mader B. Pretense and hidden feelings in the humane society environment: a source of stress. Psych Rep. 1995;77:554.

Humane society staff and administrators described a need to present themselves in the workplace as strong and helpful, despite feeling angry and disgusted with the public who relinquish animals and also feeling guilty when killing those animals.
Animal death creates great stress whether in a veterinary or animal shelter context. Daily encounters with people relinquishing healthy animals create heightened stress for shelter employees who are required to maintain a courteous demeanor with the public. In this study, 45 staff of two humane societies and 10 humane society administrators who participated in three stress workshops described their behavioral pretenses and their concealed feelings in the workplace. Responses of staff at the two societies were similar to each other so the data were combined, while administrators' responses differed somewhat from staff.
Some staff described their behavior as angry (23%) or realistic (19%). A majority described themselves as assuming a pretense of appearing happy (58%). Administrators described themselves as appearing aloof (40%). Both staff and administrators adopted pretenses of being guilt and sadness (29%, 60%) were described by both staff and administrators. Wanting to educate the public was a feeling described by administrators (50%).
Participation in animal death at animal shelters requires management of emotions. The requirement of being courteous and concealing emotions when dealing with the public exacerbates the stress, presumably contributing to job burnout. The findings point to a need to increase sources of social support and good feelings in the public arena and among the workplace staff and administrators who share similar feelings of anger, guilt, and sadness.

Heath SE, Kass PH, Hart LA. Epidemiologic study of cats and dogs affected by the 1991 Oakland fire. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1998;212:504-511.

Objective- To identify risk factors of pets affected by the 1991 Oakland, Calif fire for being lost, found, adopted, or reunited with owners. Design- Retrospective cohort study. Animals- 1,075 cats and 197 dogs affected by the fire and 221 cats and 128 dogs not affected by the fire. Procedures- Records compiled from 1991 to 1995 by the Oakland Firestorm Pet Hotline were analyzed. Results- Peak activity for the hotline was on days 3 and 4 after the fire, but decreased to a low, steady rate by day 21. Many pets were found that had been abandoned or were part of a large free-roaming population that existed at the time of the fire. Many were missing after the fire and presumed killed. The longer owners delayed looking for their pet, the lower the chance of being reunited. Pets wearing collars with the owners' names and addresses had a more than 10-fold chance of being reunited, compared with pets without collars. Increasing odds for adoption of lost pets was associated with their proximity to the fire. Clinical Implications- Hotlines set up after sudden impact disasters, such as the Oakland Firestorm Pet Hotline, will probably register primarily abandoned to be most likely for those that receive an overall better level of care than pets found at other times. Adoption of pets after this disaster was primarily by the person who found that animal and principally resulted when the pet was found that animal and principally resulted when the pet was found close to the disaster area.

Fielding WJ, Mather J. Dog ownership in the west Indies: a case study from the Bahamas. Anthrozoos. 2001;14:72-80.

Results from several studies in The Bahamas, which included 511 interviews with residents and data on 776 dogs, are reported. The composition and characteristics of the dog population are described. The majority of dogs, both owned and unowned, are local mongrels called "potcakes." The median age of the dog population is three years. Potcakes are given a lower level of health care than dogs considered to resemble a recognised breed. Many dogs have no place in the household and are able to roam. The dynamics of the owned and unowned dog populations are derived, and abandoned dogs are shown to sustain the free-roaming population. The free-roaming dog population breeds throughout the year but it has a breeding cycle longer than six months, which is probably caused by its ill health. Despite the nuisance caused by unowned dogs, rsidents are tolerant towards them, and over half the households feed dogs they do not own. The changes in pet ownership required to increase the welfare of dogs are discussed.

Slater MR. The role of veterinary epidemiology in the study of free-roaming dogs and cats. Prev Vet Med. 2001;48:273-286.

Free-roaming dogs or cats are domestic dogs and cats that are not confined to a yard or house. Free-roaming dogs and cats have long caused major public-health problems and animal-welfare concerns in many countries. Free-roaming dogs have been considered to be more of a problem than cats for several reasons, but the literature addressing dogs focuses primarily on their role in rabies spread and control. Free-roaming cats are becoming more of an issue in countries where free-roaming dog problems are coming under control. The change in perception of pets, beyond their value as a commodity, has also contributed to the increase in concern and attention focused on free-roaming dogs and cats. Epidemiologists have contributed much to these studies of these populations and have potential to contribute even more. The epidemiologic methods and approaches, the experience of epidemiologists in interdisciplinary teams and the importance of considering the separate sub-populations in sutdy design and analysis all are critical in designing and evaluating interventions for free-roaming dogs and cats. In this paper, I will describe a set of useful definitions regarding free-roaming dogs and cats, summarize past and present topics of study in free-roaming dogs and cats, using selected examples, describe the limitations of existing work and how epidemiologists might strengthen and improve this work, and outline areas needing more attention by epidemiologists and why these are important.

Center for Companion Animal Behavior
UC Center for Animal Alternatives
School of Veterinary Medicine
University of California, Davis

Hsin-Yi Weng
9/16/03