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Dairy Care Practices is one in a series of University of California publications addressing the issue of animal care relating to food production in California. This revised publication is a joint project of University of California Cooperative Extension, dairy industry representatives, and members of the Dairy Workgroup.

Dairy Care Practices was edited by Carolyn Stull, Ph.D., Animal Welfare Specialist, Veterinary Medicine Cooperative Extension; Steven Berry, D.V.M., Dairy Management and Health Specialist, Animal Science Department; and, Ed DePeters, Ph.D., Professor, Animal Science Department.

The authors (listed alphabetically) include: Marit Arana, Ph.D., Area Dairy Advisor, San Joaquin, Sacramento, Yolo, Solano Alameda, and Contra Costa Counties; Donald Bath, Ph.D., Extension Dairy Nutritionist (Emeritus), Animal Science Department; Steven Berry, D.V.M., Dairy Management and Health Specialist, Animal Science Department; John Bruhn, Ph.D., Extension Food Technologist, Dept. of Food and Technology; L.J. (Bees) Butler, Ph.D., Dairy Marketing Specialist, Department of Agricultural Economics; Carol Collar, Farm Advisor, Kings County; Ed DePeters, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Animal Science Department; Walter Guterbock, D.V.M., Adjunct Professor, Veterinary Medicine Teaching and Research Center, Tulare; Gerald Higginbotham, Ph.D., Farm Advisor, Madera and Fresno Counties; Pam Hullinger, D.V.M., Animal Care Program, California Department of Food and Agriculture; John Kirk, D.V.M., Dairy Extension Veterinarian, Veterinary Medicine Teaching and Research Center, Tulare; Jim Oltjen, Ph.D., Animal Management Systems Specialist, Animal Science Department; Nyles Peterson, Farm Advisor, Los Angeles, San Bernardino, and San Diego Counties; Barbara Reed, Farm Advisor, North Region; Peter Robinson, Ph.D., Extension Dairy Specialist, Department of Animal Science; Tom Shultz, Ph.D., Farm Advisor, Tulare County; Carolyn Stull, Ph.D., Animal Welfare Specialist, Veterinary Medicine Cooperative Extension; and Abraham Wubishet, Ph.D., Farm Advisor, Los Angeles, Riverside, and San Bernardino Counties.

Published by the University of California, Davis; Second Edition, June 1998.

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INTRODUCTION

Proper animal care has evolved from research and decades of practical experience. Researchers continue to investigate and enhance animal care methods. The care and management of dairy cows depends on age, location, lactation and pregnancy status, facilities, environment, health, nutrition, and many other factors. The young calf has different needs for basic care than the dry or lactating cow. Thus, managers must be aware of individual animal needs and provide for them. Proper care practices which provide for animal well-being also may be the most efficient in terms of production. If certain management practices conflict with animal well-being, it will be to the producer's long-term advantage to adopt practices that put animal welfare ahead of short-term savings.

The goals of this publication are to explain why, when, and how specific practices are used in dairy production systems in California to support animal well-being and not to set forth or suggest specific guidelines for production practices. This publication will help producers to evaluate husbandry procedures and offer production practices that are safe, ethical, and cost efficient. Variations from suggested care practices in this publication are acceptable. Continued research is essential to provide additional information about the basic needs of dairy cattle under different management systems. As new, scientifically based techniques and practices become available, management should adopt these methods to existing systems.

This publication includes a description of the dairy industry in California which documents several of the industry's unique characteristics. This is followed by Management Components with sections addressing specific phases of dairy production. Each section describes appropriate facilities, nutrition, and health care practices. A Glossary and Bibliography are included to assist the reader with terminology and sources of additional information.



THE DAIRY INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA

California's dairy industry is influenced by two key factors. First, California's geographical isolation substantially limits the amount of fluid milk that can flow into or out of the state. The Sierra Nevada Mountains and the unpopulated desert to the east of California, and the Pacific Ocean to the west, present geographical barriers to low-cost transportation of milk. Therefore, the California dairy industry has to produce enough fluid milk to meet the demands of the state's more than 30 million residents. The second factor influencing the California dairy industry is its unique pricing system. Price is determined by a complex set of stabilization, marketing, and pooling plans. This system is quite different from the federal milk marketing orders that affect milk price in most of the U.S.

California dairying also differs substantially from typical dairying areas in the East and Midwest. Drylot dairy farming was developed in Southern California in the 1920s and 1930s because of expensive land, and it predominates today. Dairy producers can milk 500 to 800 cows on a land area as small as 100 acres by housing cows in a drylot, handling waste properly, and purchasing all their feed ingredients. This allows for a more intensive system of milk production than traditional pasture-based systems.

California cow numbers have increased about 2 percent per year in recent decades. Milk cows now account for about 12 percent of total cow numbers in the U.S., compared with less than 5 percent in 1960. Average herd size in California is approximately 650 milk cows, compared with a national average of 60 milk cows.

Average milk production per cow in California is also one of the highest in the U.S. (along with Washington and New Mexico). In 1996, average milk production per cow exceeded 20,000 pounds compared with the national average of just over 15,000 pounds.

In 1996, California's 2,200 dairies marketed nearly 22 billion pounds of milk and were exceeded only by Wisconsin. Cash receipts from milk sales make dairying the largest agricultural industry in California. Of the 2,323 dairies in California, about 2,144 are Grade A and produce 98 percent of the milk. The remaining 2 percent is produced by Grade B dairies.

Southern California produces approximately 27 percent of the state's milk and another 33 percent is produced in the South or San Joaquin Valley; the remaining 40% is produced in Northern California (including the North Valley, North and South Bay areas, and Del

Norte-Humboldt region). In the past 20 years, production has shifted north as urban and environmental pressures in Southern California have sent southern dairies into the San Joaquin Valley. This has created a seasonal shortfall in meeting Southern California's fluid milk needs. Consequently, about 25 percent of Southern California's bulk raw milk needs are met from milk produced in the South Valley.

Finally, a prominent characteristic of dairying in California is the relatively low cost of milk production. There appear to be several reasons for this. The climate is favorable for dairying. In other parts of the U.S., harsh winter weather requires shelter for animals; these requirements are much less in California's mild winters. California summers are dry, in contrast to the humid conditions found in other parts of the U.S. Cows can be accommodated on hot California days with simple shade structures and a water mister system. The combination of high temperature and humidity elsewhere reduces milk production.

While costs of traditional feeds in California are slightly higher than elsewhere, there are many relatively inexpensive vegetable, fruit, nut, grain, and fiber by-products available for feeding dairy cows. In addition alfalfa available in California is of much higher quality and availability than that grown in the East and Midwest because of the long growing season and controlled irrigation. Finally, the average California dairy is large enough to allow producers to capture economies of size and scale, thus reducing average per unit costs considerably.

The dairy industry in California developed because of the state's geographical location and marketing plan. It is comprised of intensive systems of management with high producing cows and low production costs. New technologies and advances through research continue to improve dairy care practices in California.

MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS:

Section 1. Calf Care from Birth to Weaning
Section 2. Heifer Care from Weaning to Calving
Section 3. Care of Cows and Calves During the Periparturient Period
Section 4. Lactating Dairy Cow Care
Section 5. Dry Cow Care
Section 6. Care of the Dairy Bull
Section 7. Care and Handling of Animals Destined for Sale or Slaughter
Section 8. Euthanasia of Animals on the Dairy

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Adrews, E.J., T.B. Bennett, J.D. Clark, K.A. Houpt, P.J. Pascoe, G.W. Robinson, and J.R. Boyce, 1993. Report of the AVMA panel on euthanasia. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 202:299-249.

Albright, J.L. 1987. Dairy animal welfare: Current and needed research. J. Dairy Sci. 70(12):2711-2731.

Armstrong, D. and F. Wiersma. 1986. An update on cow cooling methods in the west. American Society of Agricultural Engineers Summer Mtg. Paper, 86-4034. San Luis Obispo, CA.

Bath, D.L., F.N. Dickinson, H.A. Tucker and R.D. Appleman. 1985. Dairy cattle: Principles, practices, problems, and profits. 3rd Ed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, PA. 473 pp.

Battaglia, R.A. and V.B. Mayrose. 1981. Handbook of livestock management techniques. Macmillan Publishing Co., New York, NY. 595 pp.

Bucklin, R., G. Hahn, D. Beede and D. Bray. 1992. Physical facilities for warm climate systems. In: Large Dairy Herd Management Symp. Proc., Am. Dairy Sci. Assoc., Champaign, IL. pp. 609-618.

California Department of Food and Agriculture. 1998. "Guidelines for Emergency Euthanasia of Cattle," 2pp. (brochure).

Canadian Federation of Humane Societies. 1990. Recommended code of practice for care and handling of dairy cattle. Agri. Dept. of Canada, Ottawa, Ont. Publ. No. 1853, 41 pp.

Collins, W.H. and G.M. Jones. 1983. Counter-sloped confinement and permanent hutch rearing facility for dairy heifers. In: Dairy Housing II, Proc., Second National Dairy Housing Conference, Madison, WI. pp.261-271.

Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. 1981. Scientific aspects of the welfare of food animals. November. Report No. 91, 54 pp.

Dairy Herd Workshop. 1990. Your guide to healthy, profitable calves. Miller Publishing Co. Minneapolis, MN. Vol 1, No 1, 58 pp.

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GLOSSARY

Antibiotic
A therapeutic product produced by living organisms, such as molds, which destroys or inhibits the growth of other microorganisms, especially bacteria.

Artificial Insemination
Placing frozen semen which has been thawed in the uterus of a female bovine in estrus.

Attenuated
Process used in vaccine production to modify organisms to induce immunity without causing disease.

Brucellosis
Disease of cattle causing abortion in females and undulant fever in people. Subject to a federal/state eradication program requiring vaccination of all breeding females by an accredited veterinarian.

Bull
Uncastrated bovine male of any age.

Calf
Young bovine animal of either sex under a year of age.

Castration
Removal of the testicles.

Close-up Cow
A pregnant cow within 10 to 16 days of calving.

Coccidia
Microscopic single-celled animal parasites that cause diarrhea and other diseases.

Colostrum
Milk produced by a cow prior to and during the first milking after calving which contains maternal immunoglobulins.

Cow
A sexually mature female bovine animal which has produced a calf.

Cull
To remove less desirable animals from the breeding herd.

Dam
Female parent.

Dehorning
Procedure to remove horn or terminate horn growth permanently.

Downer Cow
Animal which cannot stand or walk due to sickness or injury.

Dry cow
Nonlactating pregnant female bovine that has completed a lactation.

Drying-off
End of lactation when milking is stopped and udder is allowed time to regenerate milk-producing tissue.

Dystocia
Difficult birth.

E. coli
Bacterium causing mastitis in cows and diarrhea in calves.

Edema
Excessive accumulation of watery fluids in cells, tissues or cavities.

Estrous Cycle
Length of time from one estrus period to the next; averages 21 days in cattle.

Estrus
The period of sexual receptivity in the cow; same as heat.

Forage
Fibrous feedstuffs harvested from plant sources (e.g., hay, silage); roughage.

Fresh
A cow or heifer that has recently given birth or "freshened."

Gestation
The time period from conception to calving.

Gossypol
A toxic compound contained in cottonseed.

Heat detection
Identification of females in heat for artificial insemination.

Heifer
A female bovine that has not produced a calf; sometimes a cow in first lactation.

Hutch
Small portable shelter for housing a single calf.

Lactation
The period between calving and drying off when a cow produces milk.

Mastitis
Inflammation of the mammary gland.

Milk fever
See parturient paresis.

Morbidity
Incidence of disease; morbidity rate is the proportion or percentage of individuals in a group that become ill during a specified time.

Mortality rate
Proportion or percentage of individuals that die from a disease during a specified time, usually 1 year.

Mycotoxin
Poisons in feed caused by molds.

Natural Service
Breeding of a cow utilizing a bull rather than artificial insemination.

Necropsy
Post-mortem examination performed on animals.

Ovary
The female reproductive gland in which the eggs are formed and progesterone and estrogenic hormones are produced.

Parasite
An organism that lives a portion of its life cycle in or on a host animal.

Parturient paresis
Partial paralysis that occurs at or near time of giving birth to young and beginning lactation; commonly called milk fever.

Parturition
The process of giving birth, calving.

Pasteurization
The process of heating milk to 161^oF and holding it at that temperature for 15 seconds to destroy microorganisms that cause disease or spoilage of products.

Pathogen
Biologic agent--i.e., bacteria, virus, protozoa, nematode--which produces disease or illness.

Periparturient
The time around calving.

Periparturient hypocalcemia
Low serum calcium associated with calving which can result in loss of motor function. (See also parturient paresis.)

Postpartum
Following birth.

Protozoa
Single-celled microscopic animals.

Rumen
The large fermentation compartment of the ruminant animal's stomach in which bacteria and protozoa break down fibrous plant material and other feedstuffs, and synthesize essential proteins and vitamins.

Rumination
Regurgitation and chewing of feed from the rumen; cud chewing.

Shade
Structures in corrals designed to provide shelter from sun.

Stanchion
Devices that close around the neck of cattle behind the head; used to restrain animals for heat detection, examination, breeding, treatment, etc.

Stress
An unusual or abnormal influence causing a change in an animal's function, structure, or behavior.

Total Mixed Ration (TMR)
Complete ration consisting of concentrate, roughage, and supplements necessary to meet the daily nutrient and energy nutritional requirements of the cow or heifer.

Vaccine
Suspension of attenuated or killed microbes or toxins administered to induce active immunity.

Whole milk
Milk as collected from the cow.